UNIT III ADVANCED DATABASE SYSTEMS

Object Oriented Databases-Need for Complex Data Types - The Object-Oriented Data
Model-Object-Oriented Languages-Spatial Databases: Spatial Data Types, Spatial
Relationships, Spatial Data Structures, Spatial Access Methods – Temporal Databases:
Overview – Active Databases – Deductive Databases – RecursiveQueries in SQL – Mobile
Databases: Location and Handoff Management, Mobile TransactionModels, Concurrency –
Transaction Commit Protocols – Multimedia databases

OBJECT ORIENTED DATABASES

An object-oriented database is a collection of object-oriented programming and relational

database. There are various items which are created using object-oriented programming
languages like C++, Java which can be stored in relational databases, but object-oriented
databases are well-suited for those items.
An object-oriented database is organized around objects rather than actions, and data rather
than logic.

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a computer programming model that organizes

software design around data, or objects, rather than functions and logic. An object can be
defined as a data field that has unique attributes and behavior.

POLYMORPHISM

Polymorphism is the method in an object-oriented programming language that performs

different things as per the object's class, which calls it. With Polymorphism, a message is
sent to multiple class objects, and every object responds appropriately according to the
properties of the class.

A real-life example of polymorphism, a person at the same time can have different
characteristics. Like a man at the same time is a father, a husband, an employee. So the
same person posses different behavior in different situations. This is called polymorphism.
INHERITANCE

Inheritance is the process by which genetic information is passed on from parent to child.
... Inheritance describes how genetic material is passed on from parent to child.

ENCAPSULATION

Data encapsulation, also known as data hiding, is the mechanism whereby the
implementation details of a class are kept hidden from the user. The user can only
perform a restricted set of operations on the hidden members of the class by executing special
functions commonly called methods.

RELATIONAL DATABASE

A relational database is a type of database that stores and provides access to data points
that are related to one another. ... The columns of the table hold attributes of the data, and
each record usually has a value for each attribute, making it easy to establish the relationships
among data points.

INTEGRITY

Maintaining data integrity requires an understanding of the two types of data

integrity: physical integrity and logical integrity. Both are collections of processes and
methods that enforce data integrity in both hierarchical and relational databases.

CONCURRENCY

Data concurrency is the ability to allow multiple users to affect multiple transaction
within a database. Simply, data concurrency allows multiple users to access data all at the
same time. ... Once the data is saved, it is then written into the database's physical storage in
place of the original data.

QUERY PROCESSING

Query Processing is the activity performed in extracting data from the database. In query
processing, it takes various steps for fetching the data from the database. The steps involved
are: Parsing and translation. Optimization.

Need for Complex Data Types

Any data that does not fall into the traditional field structure (alpha, numeric, dates) of a
relational DBMS. Examples of complex data types are bills of materials, word processing
documents, maps, time-series, images and video.
A complex data type is usually a composite of other existing data types.

Collection types
You can use a collection type whenever you must store and manipulate collections
of data within a table cell. You can assign collection types to columns.

LIST

List is a collection data type. It allows multiple values to be stored within the same field. For
example, in a Patients table, Allergies may be a List – String data type that is configured
with all known allergies.
SET
A SET is a string object that can have zero or more values, each of which must be
chosen from a list of permitted values specified when the table is created. SET column
values that consist of multiple set members are specified with members separated by
commas ( , )
Data type Description

A string object that can have 0 or more values, chosen from a

SET(val1, val2,
list of possible values. You can list up to 64 values in a SET
val3, ...)
list

MULTISET
The MULTISET data type is a collection type that stores a non-ordered set that can
include duplicate element values. The elements in a MULTISET have no ordinal position.
That is, there is no concept of a first, second, or third element in a MULTISET.

Row types
 A row type typically contains multiple fields.
 When you want to store more than one kind of data in a column or variable,
you can create a row type.
 Row types come in two kinds: named row types and unnamed row types.
 You can assign an unnamed row type to columns and variables.
 You can assign a named row type to columns, variables, tables, or views.

NAMED ROW TYPES

A row type is a complex type that combines one or more related data fields. The two kinds of
row types are as follows: Named row types. A named row type can define tables, columns,
fields of another row-type column, program variables, statement local variables, and
routine return values.

UNNAMED ROWTYPES
An unnamed row type is a group of typed fields that you create with the ROW
constructor. An important distinction between named and unnamed row types is that you
cannot assign an unnamed row type to a table. You use an unnamed row type to define the
type of a column or field only.

THE OBJECT-ORIENTED DATA MODEL

Object oriented data model is based upon real world situations. These situations are
represented as objects, with different attributes. All these object have multiple
relationships between them.

Elements of Object oriented data model

Objects
The real world entities and situations are represented as objects in the Object
oriented database model.
Attributes and Method
Every object has certain characteristics. These are represented using Attributes. The
behaviour of the objects is represented using Methods.
Class
Similar attributes and methods are grouped together using a class. An object can be
called as an instance of the class.
Inheritance
A new class can be derived from the original class. The derived class contains
attributes and methods of the original class as well as its own.

Example
An Example of the Object Oriented data model is −
Shape, Circle, Rectangle and Triangle are all objects in this model.
Circle has the attributes Center and Radius.
Rectangle has the attributes Length and Breath
Triangle has the attributes Base and Height.
The objects Circle, Rectangle and Triangle inherit from the object Shape.

OBJECT-ORIENTED LANGUAGES

Object-oriented language (OOL) is a high-level computer programming

language that implements objects and their associated procedures within the
programming context to create software programs.

Object-oriented language uses an object-oriented programming technique that

binds related data and functions into an object and encourages reuse of these
objects within the same and other programs.

SPATIAL DATABASES

Spatial data is associated with geographic locations such as cities,towns etc. A

spatial database is optimized to store and query data representing objects. These
are the objects which are defined in a geometric space.

Characteristics of Spatial Database

A spatial database system has the following characteristics

 It is a database system
 It offers spatial data types (SDTs) in its data model and query language.
 It supports spatial data types in its implementation, providing at least spatial indexing
and efficient algorithms for spatial join.
Example
A road map is a visualization of geographic information. A road map is a 2-
dimensional object which contains points, lines, and polygons that can represent
cities, roads, and political boundaries such as states or provinces.
In general, spatial data can be of two types −
  Vector data: This data is represented as discrete points, lines and polygons
 Rastor data: This data is represented as a matrix of square cells.

The spatial data in the form of points, lines, polygons etc. is used by many different
databases as shown above.

SPATIAL DATA TYPES

Spatial data is the data collected through with physical real life locations like
towns, cities, islands etc. Spatial data are basically of three different types
and are wisely used in commercial sectors :
1. Map data :
Map data includes different types of spatial features of objects in map, e.g
– an object’s shape and location of object within map. The three basic
types of features are points, lines, and polygons (or areas).

Points –
Points are used to represent spatial characteristics of objects whose
locations correspond to single 2-D coordinates (x, y, or longitude/latitude)
in the scale of particular application. For examples : Buildings, cellular
towers, or stationary vehicles. Moving vehicles and other moving objects
can be represented by sequence of point locations that change over time.

Lines –
Lines represent objects having length, such as roads or rivers, whose
spatial characteristics can be approximated by sequence of connected
lines.

Polygons –
Polygons are used to represent characteristics of objects that have
boundary, like states, lakes, or countries.
2.Attribute data :
It is the descriptive data that GIeographic Information Systems associate
with features in the map. For example, in map representing countries within
an Indian state (ex – Odisha or Mumbai).
Attributes- Population, largest city/town, area in square miles, and so on
.
3.Image data :
It includes camera created data like satellite images and aerial photographs.
Objects of interest, such as buildings and roads, can be identified and
overlaid on these images. Aerial and satellite images are typical examples
of raster data.

Models of Spatial Information :

It is divided into two categories :
 Field :
These models are used to model spatial data that is continuous in nature,
e.g. terrain elevation, air quality index, temperature data, and soil
variation characteristics.
 Object :
These models have been used for applications such as transportation
networks, land parcels, buildings, and other objects that possess both
spatial and non-spatial attributes.
A spatial application is modeled using either field or an object based
model, which depends on the requirements and the traditional choice of
model for the application. Example – High traffic analysing system, etc.

SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Spatial relationships explore the concept of where objects are in relationship to something
else. For example, a ball may be behind the chair, or under the table, or in the box. The
dog may be on the blanket, outside of the house, or in the doghouse.

Topological relations:

Topological relationships describe qualitative properties that characterize the relative position of
spatial objects. disjoint, meet, overlap.

For any two spatial objects a and b, that can be points, lines and/or polygonal areas

Topologically equal. Also (a ∩ b = a) ∧ (a ∩ b = b)

Equals a=b

Disjoint a∩b=∅
a and b are disjoint, have no point in common. They form a set
of disconnected geometries.

Intersects a∩b≠∅
 Touches (a ∩ b ≠ ∅) ∧ (aο ∩ bο = ∅)
a touches b, they have at least one boundary point in common, but no interior
points.

Contains a∩b=b

Covers aο ∩ b = b
b lies in the interior of a (extends Contains). Other definitions: "no points of b lie in
the exterior of a", or "Every point of b is a point of (the interior of) a".

CoveredBy Covers(b,a)

Within a∩b=a

Directional relations:
Directional relations are qualitative spatial relations that describe how an object or a
region is placed relative to other objects or regions. This knowledge is expressed using
symbolic (qualitative) and not numerical (quantitative) terms

Distance relations:
Distance relations specify how far is the object away from the reference object.

 Examples are: at; nearby; in the vicinity; far away

SPATIAL DATA STRUCTURE

 (i) Space-driven structure: This type of SAM is based on the partition of
the 2-D spaces into rectangular cells. Objects are mapped to the cells
according to some geometric criterion and then a linear structure or
ordering is established and used to index geometric objects.

(ii) Data-driven structure: These structures are organized by

partitioning the set of objects as opposite to space, then partitioning
adapts to the objects distribution in embedding space.
Spatial data canbe divided into two parts:

 Point Access Method

SPATIAL ACCESS METHODS

 The main purpose of spatial access methods is to support efficient selection of objects
based on spatial properties.
 For example, a range query selects objects lying within specified ranges of coordinates;
a nearest neighbour query finds the object lying closest to a specified object.
 spatial access methods are also used to implement efficiently such spatial analyses as
map overlay, and other types of spatial joins.
 Two characteristics of spatial datasets are that they are frequently large and that the
data are quite often distributed in an irregular manner.
 A spatial access method needs to take into account both spatial indexing and clustering
techniques.
 Without a spatial index, every object in the database has to be checked to see whether
it meets the spatial selection criterion; a ‘full table scan’ in a relational database.
 As spatial datasets are usually very large, such checking is unacceptable in practice for
interactive use and most other applications.

MAIN MEMORY ACCESS METHODS

 KD-TREE
 BSP-TREE

THE KD-TREE

 The basic form of the KD-tree stores K-dimensional points (Bentley 1975).
 This section concentrates on the 2-dimensional case.
 Each internal node of the KD-tree contains one point and also corresponds to a
rectangular region.
 The root of the tree corresponds to the whole region of interest.
  The rectangular region is divided into two parts by the x-coordinate of the stored point
on the odd levels and by the y-coordinate on the even levels in the tree.

THE BSP-TREE

BSP)-tree, before presenting a variant suitable for GIS applications: the multi-object BSPtree for
storing polylines and polygons. The original use of the BSP-tree was in 3-dimensional computer
graphics (Fuchs et al 1980; Fuchs et al 1983). The BSP-tree was used by Fuchs to produce a hidden
surface image of a static 3-dimensional scene. After a preprocessing phase it is possible to produce
an image from any view angle in O(n) time, with n the number of polygons in the BSP-tree. In this
chapter the 2-dimensional BSP-tree is used for the structured storage of geometric data. It is a data
structure that is not based on a rectangular division of space. Rather, it uses the line segments of the
polylines and the edges of the polygons to divide the space in a recursive manner. The BSP-tree
reflects this recursive division of space. Each time a (sub)space is divided into two subspaces by a
socalled splitting primitive, a corresponding node is added to the tree. The BSP-tree represents an
organisation of space by a set of convex subspaces in a binary tree. This tree is useful during spatial
search and other spatial operations. Figure 3(a) shows a scene with some directed line segments.
The ‘left’ side of the line segment is marked with an arrow. From this scene, line segment A is
selected and space is split into two parts by the supporting line of A. This process is repeated for
each of the two sub-spaces with the other line segments. The splitting of space continues until there
are no line segments left. Note that sometimes the splitting of a space implies that a line segment
(which has not yet been used for splitting itself) is split into two parts. Line D, for example, is split
into D1 and D2. Figure 3(b) shows the resulting organisation of the space, as a set of (possibly open)
convex subspaces. The corresponding BSP-tree is drawn in Figure 3(c). The BSP-tree, as discussed so
far, is suitable only for storing a collection of (unrelated) line segments. In GIS it must be possible to
represent objects, such as polygons. The multi-object BSP-tree (Oosterom 1990) is an extension of
the BSP-tree which caters for object representation. It stores the line segments that together make
up the boundary of the polygon. The multi-object BSP-tree has explicit leaf nodes which correspond
to the convex subspaces created by the BSP-tree. Figure 4(a) presents a 2-dimensional scene with
two objects, triangle T with sides abc, and rectangle R with sides defg. The method divides the space
in the convex subspaces of Figure 4(b). The BSP-tree of Figure 4(c) is extended with explicit leaf
nodes, each representing a convex part of the space. If a convex subspace corresponds to the
‘outside’ region, no label is drawn in the figure. If no more than one identification tag per leaf is
allowed, only mutually exclusive objects can be stored in the multi-object BSP-tree, otherwise it
would be possible also to deal with objects that overlap. A disadvantage of this Spatial access
methods 387 Fig 3. The building of a BSP-tree: (a) 2-dimensional scene; (b) convex sub-spaces; and
(c) BSP-tree. D B A C A B C D1 D2 B A C D1 D2 (a) (b) (c) left right Fig 4. The building of a multi-object
BSP-tree: (a) object scenes; (b) convex sub-spaces; and (c) multi-object BSP-tree. (a) (b) (c) e d g f a b
c e d g2 f1 f2 R a b c d a b e f2 c f1 g1 g2 R R T T BSP-tree is that the representation of one object is
scattered over several leaves, as illustrated by rectangle R in Figure 4. The (multi-object) BSP-tree
allows efficient implementation of spatial operations, such as pick and rectangle search. The choice
of which line segment to use for dividing the space very much influences the building of the tree. It is
preferable to have a balanced BSP-tree with as few nodes as possible. This is a very difficult
requirement to fulfil, because balancing the tree requires that line segments from the middle of the
dataset be used to split the space. These line segments will probably split other line segments. Each
split of a line segment introduces an extra node in the BSP-tree. However, Paterson and Yao (1989)
prove that, if the original line segments are disjoint, then it is possible to build a BSP-tree with O(n
log n) nodes and depth O(log n) using an algorithm requiring only O(n log n) time.
 TEMPORAL DATABASES:OVERVIEW

TEMPORAL DATABASE:
 A temporal database stores data relating to time instances.
 It offers temporal data types and stores information relating to past, present and future time.
 Valid time is the time period during which a fact is true in the real world.
 Transaction time is the time at which a fact was recorded in the database.

THE COMPLEXITIES OF DATA:

 A temporal database is generally understood as a database capable of supporting
storage and reasoning of time-based data.
 Temporal databases store temporal data, i.e. data that is time dependent (timevarying).
 Typical temporal database scenarios and applications include time-dependent/time-
varying economic data, such as:
 Share prices
 Exchange rates
 Interest rates
 Company profits
CONCEPTS OF TIME
Timelines, points, duration and intervals
When attempting to represent and reason about time, four important concepts are:
 Points: Formally a point in time has no duration; it simply refers to a particular
position in the timeline under discussion. We can talk of the point in time at which
some event begins or ends.
 Duration: A duration refers to a number of time quanta; for example, a week, two
months, three years and 10 seconds are all durations. A duration refers to a particular
magnitude (size) of a part of a timeline, but not the direction (so whether we talk of a
week ago or a week beginning in three days' time, we are still referring to a length of
time of a week).
 Interval: An interval has a start time point and an end time point. Using more formal
notation, we can refer to an interval I(s, e) with start point and end point and for
which all points referring to time from s to e (inclusive) make up the interval. Note
that there is an assumption (constraint) that the timepoint does not occur after the
timepoint (an interval of zero time quanta would have a start point and end point that
were equal).
 Timeline: Conceptually we can often imagine time as moving along a line in one
direction. When graphically representing time, it is usual to draw a line (often with an
arrow to show time direction), where events shown towards the end of the timeline
have occurred later than those shown towards the beginning of the line. Often a
graphical timeline is draw like an axis on a graph (by convention, the X-axis
represents time) and the granularity of the time units is marked (and perhaps labelled)
along the X-axis.

TEMPORAL DATA BEHAVIOUR

In general, the behaviour of temporal entities can be classified into one of four basic
categories, namely:
 Discrete
 Continuous
  Stepwise constant
 Period based
These can be depicted graphically as shown in the figures below. We shall consider each
category of temporal data individually.

CONTINUOUS TEMPORAL DATA

Continuous behaviour is observed where an attribute value is recorded constantly over time
such that its value may be constantly changing. Continuous behaviour can often be found in
monitoring systems recording continuous characteristics - for example, a speedometer of a
motorcar.

DISCRETE TEMPORAL DATA

Discrete data attributes are recorded at specific points in time but have no definition at any
other points in time. Discrete data is associated with individual events such as "A complete
check-up was on a particular date".

STEPWISE CONSTANT TEMPORAL DATA

Stepwise constant data consists of values that change at a point in time, then remain constant
until being changed again - for example, blood pressure measurement.

PERIOD-BASED TEMPORAL DATA

Period-based data models the behaviour of events that occur over some period of time but, at
the end of this period, become undefined. An example of period-based data would be patient
drug usage records, where a patient takes a drug for a prescribed period of time and then
stops taking it.
 ACTIVE DATABASES
 Active Database is a database consisting of set of triggers.
 These databases are very difficult to be maintained because of the complexity that
arises in understanding the effect of these triggers.
 In such database, DBMS initially verifies whether the particular trigger specified in
the statement that modifies the database) is activated or not, prior to executing the
statement.
 If the trigger is active then DBMS executes the condition part and then executes the
action part only if the specified condition is evaluated to true.
 It is possible to activate more than one trigger within a single statement.
 In such situation, DBMS processes each of the trigger randomly.
 The execution of an action part of a trigger may either activate other triggers or the
same trigger that Initialized this action.
 Such types of trigger that activates itself is called as ‘recursive trigger’.

Features of Active Database:

1. It possess all the concepts of a conventional database i.e. data modelling facilities, query
language etc.
2. It supports all the functions of a traditional database like data definition, data
manipulation, storage management etc.
3. It supports definition and management of ECA rules.
4. It detects event occurrence.
5. It must be able to evaluate conditions and to execute actions.
6. It means that it has to implement rule execution.
 Advantages :
1. Enhances traditional database functionalities with powerful rule processing capabilities.
2. Enable a uniform and centralized description of the business rules relevant to the
information system.
3. Avoids redundancy of checking and repair operations.
4. Suitable platform for building large and efficient knowledge base and expert systems.

DEDUCTIVE DATABASES
 A deductive database is a database system that can make deductions based on
rules and facts stored in the database.
 Deductive databases are more expressive than relational databases but less
expressive than logic programming systems.
RECURSIVE QUERIES IN SQL
Recursion is achieved by WITH statement, in SQL jargon called Common Table
Expression (CTE). It allows to name the result and reference it within other queries
sometime later

Recursive queries are used to query hierarchical data. The SQL standard
defines a special syntax for common table expressions to enable recursive
processing.

Assume the following hierarchical definition of product categories:

create table category

(
id integer not null primary key,
name varchar(100) not null,
parent_category integer references category
);

With the following data:

id | name | parent_category
---+-------------------+----------------
1 | Root Node | (null)
2 | Software | 1
3 | Hardware | 1
4 | Notebooks | 3
5 | Phones | 3
6 | Applications | 2
7 | Database Software | 2
8 | Relational DBMS | 7
9 | Tools | 7
10 | Commandline tools | 9
11 | GUI Tools | 9
12 | Android Phones | 5
13 | iPhone | 5
14 | Windows Phones | 5

To (recursively) query all sub-categories for one parent, the following query
can be used:

with recursive cat_tree as (

select id,
name,
parent_category
from category
where name = 'Database Software' -- this defines the start of the
recursion
union all
select child.id,
child.name,
child.parent_category
from category as child
join cat_tree as parent on parent.id = child.parent_category -- the
self join to the CTE builds up the recursion
)
select *
from cat_tree;
The above query will return the following result:
id | name | parent_category
---+-------------------+----------------
7 | Database Software | 2
8 | Relational DBMS | 7
9 | Tools | 7
10 | Commandline tools | 9
11 | GUI Tools | 9
12 | Android Phones | 5
13 | iPhone | 5
14 | Windows Phones | 5

MOBILE DATABASES: LOCATION AND HANDOFF MANAGEMENT

Overview
A Mobile database is a database that can be connected to a mobile computing device over a
mobile network (or wireless network). Here the client and the server have wireless
connections. In today’s world, mobile computing is growing very rapidly, and it is huge
potential in the field of the database. It will be applicable on different-different devices like
android based mobile databases, iOS based mobile databases, etc.
Features of Mobile database :

 A cache is maintained to hold frequent and transactions so that they are not lost due to
connection failure.
 As the use of laptops, mobile and PDAs is increasing to reside in the mobile system.
 Mobile databases are physically separate from the central database server.
 Mobile databases resided on mobile devices.
 Mobile databases are capable of communicating with a central database server or other
mobile clients from remote sites.
 With the help of a mobile database, mobile users must be able to work without a
wireless connection due to poor or even non-existent connections (disconnected).
 A mobile database is used to analyze and manipulate data on mobile devices.

Mobile Database typically involves three parties :

1. Fixed Hosts –
It performs the transactions and data management functions with the help of database
servers.

2. Mobiles Units –
These are portable computers that move around a geographical region that includes the
cellular network that these units use to communicate to base stations.

3. Base Stations –
These are two-way radios installation in fixed locations, that pass communication with
the mobile units to and from the fixed hosts.
Limitations :

 It has Limited wireless bandwidth.

 In the mobile database, Wireless communication speed.
 It required Unlimited battery power to access.
 It is Less secured.
 It is Hard to make theft-proof.

LOCATION AND HANDOFF MANAGEMENT

Types of Handoffs
There are two types of handoffs −
 Hard Handoff − In a hard handoff, an actual break in the connection occurs
while switching from one cell to another. The radio links from the mobile
station to the existing cell is broken before establishing a link with the next
cell. It is generally an inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break before make”
policy.
 Soft Handoff − In soft handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio
links are added and removed to the mobile station. This ensures that during
the handoff, no break occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located sites. It
is a “make before break” policy.
 MOBILE TRANSACTION MODELS

A mobile transaction model has been defined addressing the movement behavior of
transactions. Mobile transactions are named as Kangaroo Transactions which incorporate
the property that the transactions in a mobile environment hop from one base station to
another as the mobile unit moves.
 CONCURRENCY

TRANSACTION COMMIT PROTOCOLS

MULTIMEDIA DATABASES
The multimedia databases are used to store multimedia data such as images, animation,
audio, video along with text. This data is stored in the form of multiple file types like .txt(text),
.jpg(images), .swf(videos), .mp3(audio) etc.

Contents of the Multimedia Database

The multimedia database stored the multimedia data and information related to it.
This is given in detail as follows −
Media data
This is the multimedia data that is stored in the database such as images, videos,
audios, animation etc.
Media format data
The Media format data contains the formatting information related to the media data
such as sampling rate, frame rate, encoding scheme etc.
Media keyword data
This contains the keyword data related to the media in the database. For an image
the keyword data can be date and time of the image, description of the image etc.
Media feature data
Th Media feature data describes the features of the media data. For an image,
feature data can be colours of the image, textures in the image etc.
Challenges of Multimedia Database
There are many challenges to implement a multimedia database. Some of these are:

 Multimedia databases contains data in a large type of formats such

as .txt(text), .jpg(images), .swf(videos), .mp3(audio) etc. It is difficult to convert one
type of data format to another.
 The multimedia database requires a large size as the multimedia data is quite large
and needs to be stored successfully in the database.
 It takes a lot of time to process multimedia data so multimedia database is slow.