CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)

UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

 Electrostatics:- It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of electric force,
electric field due to charges at rest is known as electrostatics.
 Application of electrostatics:
i) In the design of a cathode ray tube used in television and radar.
ii) In electrostatic loudspeaker.
iii) In electrostatics spraying of paints and powder coating.
iv) Natural phenomena like lightning and thunders can be explained by using the
knowledge of electrostatics.
v) Atomic structure can be explained by using the principles of electrostatics.
 Electric charge: It is an intrinsic property of elementary particles of matter which gives
rise to electric force between various objects.
 It is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit is Coulomb (C).
 A proton has a positive charge (+e) and an electron has a negative charge (-e).
Where, e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
 Basic properties of electric charge:-
i) Additive nature of charge:
The total electric charge of a system is equal to the algebraic sum of electric
charges located in the system.
For example: If two charged bodies of charges +2q and −5q are brought in
contact, then, the total charge of the system is –3q.
ii) Conservation of electric charge:
Electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. According to the law of
conservation of electric charge, the total charge in an isolated system always
remains constant. But the charges can be transferred from one part of the system
to another, such that the total charge always remains conserved.
For e.g. when a glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk cloth gets positively
charged, whereas the piece of silk cloth becomes negatively charged. The positive
charge on glass rod after rubbing is equal to the negative charge on silk cloth.
Before rubbing, total charge on the system is zero.
After rubbing, total charge on the system = positive charge on glass rod +
negative charge on silk cloth = zero. Hence, electric charge is conserved.
Hence, the total charge is conserved. i.e. It remains constant.
iii) Quantisation of electric charge:
The property of electric charge such that any charged body can have a charge which
is an integral multiple of the elementary charge ‘e’.
i.e. q = ± ne, where n = 1, 2, 3…..
e = elementary charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
q = total charge.

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 1

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

The quantization of electric charge was experimentally verified by R.A. Millikan in

oil drop experiment.
iv) Invariance of electric charge:
It means that magnitude of charge on a body does not vary, whatever may be the
speed of the body.
i.e. Charge on a body is independent of the speed of the object.
 Conductors and insulators:
According to the electrostatic behavior, materials are divided into two categories:
conductors and insulators (dielectrics).
Conductors: The materials which allows flow of electric charges through
them easily are called conductors.
E.g:- Silver, Copper, Aluminium, Iron, Human body etc.
Insulators: The materials which do not allow the flow of electric charge through
them are called insulators.
E.g:- Glass, rubber, plastic, dry wood etc.
 Methods of charging and induction:
A material can be electrified or electrically charged if some charge is given to the
material or taken out of the material. Ordinarily, a body is said to be electrically charged if
it has excess electron or it is deficit of electrons.
Net static charge can exist on a body in the following ways:
i) Charging by conduction (direct contact): if an uncharged body is touched with a
charged body, the uncharged body may acquire charge similar to the charged
body. Then uncharged body becomes charged due to transfer of electrons to the
other.
ii) Charging by friction: when two suitable bodies are rubbing to each other,
transfer of electrons take place. The body which gain electron possess negative
charge and the body which loses electron possess positive charge. Then the two
bodies becomes electrified. This process is known as frictional electricity.
E.g:- when a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth, the glass rod
possess positive charge and silk cloth posses negative charge. Thus two bodies
becomes electrified or charged.
iii) Charging by induction (without contact): The process by which a neutral
conductor is made electrically charged when placed near a object is known as
induction.
E.g:- when the positively charged
rod is brought nearer to a neutral
metal sphere which is on insulating
stand as shown in fig. The positively
charged rod attracts negative charges
in the sphere towards the rod and
repels the positive charges in the
sphere away from the rod.
Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 2
CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

Now the sphere is connected to the ground through a metal wire as shown in
fig. Then electrons will flow from the ground to neutralize the positive charge on
the metal sphere as shown in fig.
Now the metal wire is removed and the positive charged rod is taken away,
then the negative charge on sphere will immediately spread uniformly on the
whole surface of the sphere. Thus the sphere is now negatively charged.
In fact, an uncharged body gets attracted towards a charged body due to the
induction or similar phenomena (polarisation). When a charged body is brought
near an uncharged body, an opposite charge is developed on the nearer end of
the uncharged body which leads to attraction. Thus, induction precedes
attraction in this case.
Induced charges: The charges appearing on the uncharged body by the process of
induction are known as induced charges. The nature of induced charges is always opposite
to that of inducing charge.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:-

Q1. The electric charge of any body is actually a surplus or deficit of electrons. Why not
protons?
Ans:- Electrons are loosely bound to atoms and can be readily exchanged during rubbing.
Protons are firmly bound inside the nucleus. They cannot be easily detached. Hence
electric charge of any body is just a surplus or deficit of electrons.
Q2. How does a positively charged glass rod attract a neutral piece of paper?
Ans:- The positively charged rod induces negative charge on the closer end and positive
charge on the farther end of the paper. The rod exerts greater attraction than repulsion
on the paper because negative charged is closer to the rod than the positive charge.
Hence the rod attracts the piece of paper.
Q3. Why does a comb run through dry hair; attract small bits of non-conducting paper?
What happens if the hair is wet?
Ans:- Comb gets electrically charged by friction when run through dry hair. It attracts
small bits of paper because the paper gets polarized in the presence of charged comb
resulting in a net force of attraction.
When hair is wet, the friction between comb and hair decreases and comb does not get
charged. Hence, it does not attract small bits of paper.

PROBLEMS:
Q1. How many electronic charges form one coulomb of charge?
Q2. Why is not possible to carry a charge 3.2 x 10-20 C by a body?
Q3. If a body gives out 109 electrons every second, how much time is required to get a
total charge of 1C from it?
Q4. Two charges q1 and q2, separated by a small distance satisfy the equation q1 + q2 = 0.
What does it tell about the charges?

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 3

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

Q5. Three small identical balls have charges -3 x 10-12 C, 8 x 10-12 C and 4 x 10-12 C
respectively. They are brought in contact and then separated. Calculate (i) charge on each
ball (ii) number of electrons in excess or deficit on each ball after contact.

Ans:- Here, q1 = -3 x 10-12 C , q2 = 8 x 10-12 C , q3 = 4 x 10-12 C

i) The charge on each ball is given by,

q =
= × 10
= + 3 x 10-12 C
ii) Since the charge is positive, there is a shortage of electrons on each ball.
×
∴ n= = = 1.875 x 107
. ×

∴ Numbers of electrons = 1.875 x 107

Q6. Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B of identical size have charges qA and qB
respectively. A third sphere C of the same size but uncharged is brought in contact with
the charge son A and B?
Ans:- New charge on A is and new charge on B is

 Coulomb’s law:
The force of attraction or repulsion between the two point charges in vacuum is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them.

i.e Fα
∴ F=k
where k is a constant of proportionality, known as coulomb’s constant.
The value of electrostatic force constant k depends on the nature of medium
separating the charges, and on the system of units.
In SI unit,
In air or vacuum, k = = 9 × 109 N m2 C−2, where is the absolute
permittivity of free space (i.e., vacuum) and the value of is 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2.

∴ F=
Note: Permittivity ( ): Permittivity describes the easiness or difficulty which a material
allows the electric lines of force to pass through it.

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 4

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

 Relative permittivity of a medium or dielectric constant of medium ( ):-

When the two charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance ‘r’ in air medium.
Then, the force between them
Fo = ………………(i)
When the same two charges separated by the same distance are placed in a medium
‘m’.
Then, the force between them
Fm = ……………(ii)
Dividing eqn. (i) by (ii), we get,

= ×

∴ = = Relative permittivity ( ) or Dielectric constant (K)

It is defined as the ratio of permittivity of the medium to permittivity of free space.

Or,
It is defined as the electrostatic force between the two charges in air to the
electrostatic force between the same two charges kept in medium at same distance.

= = =K

 COULOMB’S LAW IN VECTOR FORM:-

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r.
Then, force acting on q1 due to charge q2 is given by,
⃗12 = 21 --------------------(i)

Where 21 is the unit vector directed from q2 to q1.

Similarly, force acting on q2 due to q1 is given by,
⃗21 = 12 --------------------(ii)

Where 12 is the unit vector directed from q1 to q2.

But, 12 = - 21
Eqn. (ii) becomes,
⃗21 = - 21 -----------------(iii)

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 5

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

From (ii) and (iii), we get

⃗12 = - ⃗21
Thus, the forces exerted by two point charges on each other are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.
[Note: Coulomb’s force is considered to be Newton third law of motion.]
Units of charge:
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
We know that, F=
If q1 = q2 = q C , r = 1m and F = 9 x 109 N
∴ 9 x 109 = 9 x 109
⇒ q2 = 1
∴ q=±1C
One coulomb can be defined as charge which repels equal and similar charge
placed at a distance of 1 m from it in vacuum or air with a force of 9 x 109 N.
Smaller unit of electric charge:
1 micro-coulomb ( ) = 10-6 m
1 nano-coulomb (nC) = 10-9 m
1 pico-coulomb (pC) = 10-12 m
[Note: One coulomb is a very large unit of charge.]
Questions:
Q1. What are the significance of Coulomb’s law?
Ans:- Two charges exert equal and opposite forces and the force is central in nature.
Q2. What is the absolute permittivity of glass if its dielectric constant is 4?
Ans:- The absolute permittivity of glass, = = 4 x 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N−1 m−2.
Q3. Calculate the coulomb force between two alpha particles separated by a distance of
3.2 x 10-15 m in air, charge on an electron is – 1.6 x 10-19 C.
Ans:- Here,
Charge on the alpha particle, q = 2 x 1.6 x 10-19 C
Distance between the charge, r = 3.2 x 10-15 m
By coulomb’s law, F =
× ×( × . × )
= ( . × )
× ×( . × )
= ( . × )
= 9 × 10 × 10 × 10
= 9 × 10 × 10
= 90 N

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 6

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

Q.4 Two point charges q1 and q2 are such that i) q1q2 > 0 ii) q1q2 < 0. What is the nature of
the force between the two charges?
Ans:- i) q1q2 > 0 , it implies that the product of two charges is positive sign. So both q1
and q2 are similar charged. Hence, the nature of force is repulsive.
ii) q1q2 < 0 , it implies that the product of two charges is negative sign. So the two
charges are oppositely charged. Hence, the nature of force is attractive.
Q.6 How does the force between two point charges change if the dielectric constant of
the medium in which they are, increases?
Ans:- Force between two charges is inversely proportional to the dielectric constant (K) of
the medium. Therefore, force between two charges will decreases if the dielectric
constant of a medium increases.
Q.7 Two equal balls having equal positive charges qC are suspended by two insulating
strings of equal length. What would be the effect on the force when a plastic sheet is
inserted between the two?
Ans:- By coulomb’s law,
Force between the two charged bodies in a medium,
F=
Where, K = dielectric constant of the medium.
For vacuum, K = 1
For plastic, K > 1
Therefore, after inserting the plastic plate, the force will be reduce.

 Principle of Super position:-

The net force acting on a given point charge due to a number of point charges
around it is the vector sum of the individual forces acting on
that point charge due to all other point charges.
Consider number of point charges q1, q2, ……qn having
position vectors ⃗ , ⃗ ,….… ⃗ respectively. Let q0 be the test
charge having position vector as ⃗. Let ⃗ , ⃗ ,…….. ⃗ be
the forces acting on the given test charge q0 due to charges q1,
q2, ….qn respectively.
Then, the net force acting on q0 is given by,
⃗ = ⃗01 + ⃗02 + ………..+ ⃗0n -------------- (i)
Now,
Force acting on q0 due to q1 is given by,
⃗01 = ( ⃗ − ⃗) ----------------(ii)
| ⃗ ⃗|
Similarly, Force acting on q0 due to q2 is given by,
⃗02 = ( ⃗ − ⃗) ----------------(iii)
| ⃗ ⃗|
Substituting the values of eqn (ii) and (iii) in eqn (i), we get
Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 7
CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

∴ ⃗= ( ⃗− ⃗) + ( ⃗− ⃗) + ….+ ( ⃗− ⃗)
| ⃗ ⃗| | ⃗ ⃗| | ⃗ ⃗|

∴ ⃗ = ⃗01 + ⃗02 + ⃗03

 Continuous charge distribution:- A system in which charge is distributed over a

conductor is called continuous charge distribution.
1. Linear charge density (λ) :– It is defined as charge per unit length. If a charge q is
uniformly distributed along a line of length l, then the linear charge density is given
by,
∴ λ=
The S.I. unit of λ is coulomb/metre (Cm-1)
2. Surface charge density (σ ) :- It is defined as charge per unit area. If a charge q is
uniformly distributed on a surface of area S, then the surface charge density σ is
given by,
∴ σ=
The S.I. unit of σ is coulomb/metre2 (Cm-2)
3. Volume charge density (ρ) :- It is defined as charge per unit volume. If a charge q is
uniformly distributed throughout a volume V, then the volume charge density is
given by,
∴ ρ= The S.I. unit of is coulomb/metre3 (Cm-3)
 Electric field intensity:
The electric field intensity at any point due to source charge is defined as the force
experienced per unit positive test charge placed at that point.
It is expressed as, E =
Let a unit positive test charge q0 be placed at a point in the electric field of the source
charge Q. If F is the force experienced by the test charge q0 in the electric field, then
electric field intensity of the source charge at point p is given by,
⃗
⃗=
Where q0 → 0(i.e q0 is infinitesimally small). Hence, electric field intensity can be written
as,
⃗
⃗ = lim →

It is vector quantity and its SI unit is Newton/coulomb or N/C.

Electric field intensity due to a point charge:
Let q0 be the test charge placed in free space at a distance r from O in the electric
field of the charge Q.
Force experienced by q0 due to the charge Q is given by Coulomb’s law as,
⃗= ̂ where is a unit vector directed along OP.
Now, electric field intensity at P due to point charge Q is given by,

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 8

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

⃗ Y
⃗= = x ̂ using eqn (i) ⃗

⃗ P
⃗= ̂
O
Q X
Or, Magnitude of electric field intensity,
E= Z

Thus, the magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point due to a point charge is (i)
directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge and (ii) inversely proportional to the
square of the point from the source charge.
The graph between electric field intensity (E) due to a point source charge and the square
of the distance (r2) and 1/r2 as shown in figure.

E E

1
Note:
1. Electric field intensity at a point depends only on the magnitude and sign of the
point source charge and is independent of the magnitude and sign of test charge
q0.
2. Magnitude of electric field due to a point charge Q is same on a sphere of radius r
around the charge Q. Thus, electric field due to a charge has spherical symmetry.
 Electric field lines:
Electric field lines are straight or curved imaginary lines in a region such that the
tangent at any point on the field line gives the direction of the electric field at that point in
the region.
 Pictorial diagram of electric field lines:
For an isolated positive charge and negative charge:

For unlike charges and like

charges:

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 9

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

 Properties of electric field lines:

i) The electric field lines begin from positive charge and terminate or end on
negative charge.
ii) The tangent at any point on an electric field line gives the direction of the electric
field at that point.
iii) Two electric field lines never intersect each other.
iv) Electric field lines do not form closed loops.
v) The numbers of lines per unit cross – sectional area is proportional to the
magnitude of the intensity of electric field in that region.
vi) Electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any break.
vii) Electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface of charged conductor.
viii) Electric field lines do not pass through a conductor but pass through the dielectric
substances.
ix) Electric field lines contract lengthwise to represent attraction between two unlike
charges.
x) Electric field lines exert lateral pressure on each other to represent repulsion
between like charges.
Uniform electric field: An electric field which has same strength and direction at every
point in a region is called uniform electric field.
Non – uniform electric field: The electric field which has different strength and direction
at different points in a region is called non – uniform field.

Questions:
Q.1 How do we represent the direction of the electric field at any point on a line of at
every point on the line of force.
Ans:- The direction of the electric field line is represented by a tangent to the curve at any
point on the line of force.
Q2. Why do the electrostatic field lines not form loops?
Ans:- Because the electric lines of force start from positive charges and end on the
negative charge.
Q3. Why do electric field lines not intersect each other?
Ans:- Because if they intersect, there will be two directions of electric field at the point of
intersection which is not possible.

 Electric dipole:-
A pair of two equal and opposite charges separated by certain distance is called an
electric dipole.
For example: Two charges +q and –q separated by a small distance 2l constitute an
electric dipole. The distance between the charges is known as dipole length.
 Electric dipole moment:
It is defined as the product of the magnitude of either charge of the electric dipole
and the dipole length.
Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 10
CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

i.e ⃗ = (2 ⃗)
The direction of dipole moment ⃗ is from negative to positive charge.
It is a vector quantity.
S.I unit of electric dipole moment ( ⃗) is coulomb metre (Cm).
 Expression for electric field intensity at a point on the axial line of an electric
dipole:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of +q and –q charges which is separated by a
distance of 2 . Consider a point P at a distance from the centre O of the
dipole on the axial line of the dipole.
Electric field intensity at P due to +q charge is given by,
⃗ = , along (+) x-axis.
A B E- P E+
̂
⃗ = -q O q
( )
2l (x -l)
Electric field intensity at P due to –q charge isgiven by, r
⃗ = (x + l)
, along (-) x-axis.
( ̂)
⃗ =
( )
( ̂)
⃗ = −
( )
The net electric field intensity at point P due to electric dipole is given by,
∴ ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗
= − ( ̂)
( ) ( )
̂
= ( )
− ( )
̂ ( ) ( )
= ( )
̂
= ( )
̂
= ( )
( × ) ̂
= ( )
But, p = (q x 2 ), where p is the dipole moment
⃗ ̂
= ( )
⃗
= ( )
The magnitude of electric field intensity is given by
E = ( )
If the observation point P is very very large distance as compared to the dipole
length, then can be neglected as compared to .
Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 11
CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

E =

i.e E =

or E ∝

 Expression for electric field intensity at a point on the equatorial line of an electric
dipole:
Consider an electric dipole AB with - q and + q charges separated by a distance 2 .
Let P be the point on the equatorial line at a distance r from the centre O of the dipole.
Then, electric field intensity at P due to + q charge is given by
E+
⃗ = along BP
But, in ∆ BOP, BP2 = OP2 + OB2 θ P
= r2 + θ
∴ BP2 = AP2 = r2 +
⃗ = E-
∴ along BP r
( )
Electric field intensity at P due to – q charge is given by, -q +q
⃗ = along PA o B
A
2l
⃗ = along PA
( )
From eqn (i) and (ii), we get
⃗ = ⃗ =
( )
Draw PR∥BA, such that ∠ = ∠ =
Resolving ⃗ and ⃗ into rectangular components, the components of ⃗ and
⃗ normal to the dipole axis will cancel out. The components of ⃗ and
⃗ which are parallel to the dipole axis add up. The direction of resultant electric
field is opposite to the direction of electric dipole.
Then, the resultant electric field intensity ⃗ is given by,
∴ ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗
=2 ⃗
In ∆ BOP, =
√
∴ ⃗ =2 .
( ) √
= where p = q x 2
( )
If the point P is located far away from the dipole, then will be neglected.

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 12

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

⃗ =
( )

The direction of this electric field ⃗ is opposite to the direction of the dipole
moment of the electric dipole.
Note: Comparison of electric fields of a short dipole at axial and equatorial points:
⃗ =2 ⃗

Q1. Two charges ± 10 µC are placed 5 mm apart. Determine the electric field at
(i) A point P on the axis of dipole 15cm away from its centre O on the side of the
positive charge.
(ii) A point Q, 15cm away from centre O on a line passing through centre O and
normal to axis of the dipole.
Q2. Derive an expression for the electric field due to an electric dipole at a point lying on
the equatorial line.
Q3. Define electric dipole moment. Derive an expression for the electric field at a point P
on the line joining two charges of a dipole.
Q4. Define electric field intensity. Derive an expression for the electric intensity at a point
on the equatorial line of an electric dipole.

 ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN EXTERNAL UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD (TORQUE ON A DIPOLE

IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD):
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges + q and – q and of length 2 placed
in a uniform electric field ⃗ making an angle θ with it.
Then, force exerted on charge + q by electric field, ⃗ = q ⃗ (along ⃗)
And force exerted on charge – q by electric field, ⃗ = - q ⃗ (opposite to ⃗ )
Therefore, the net force on an electric dipole is given by,
⃗
⃗ = q ⃗ + (- q ⃗ ) = 0
B
Thus, the net force on an electric dipole in a uniform +q F = +qE
electric field is zero. 2l
But two equal and opposite forces acting on the
F = -qE A -q
dipole constitute a couple. This couple tends to rotate C
the dipole in the clockwise direction and hence tries to
align the dipole along the direction of electric field.
∴ Torque acting on the electric dipole ( ) = magnitude of either force x perpendicular
distance between the two forces.
= qE x AC
From ∆ ABC, =
∴ AC = AB =2
Eqn (i) becomes,
∴ = qE x 2
= (q x 2 )E
Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 13
CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

But, p = q x 2
∴ = pE
In vector form, it can be written as,
⃗= ⃗ × ⃗

The direction of ⃗ is given by right handed screw rule.

Special case:
1. If = 00, then = pE 0 =0
Thus, when dipole moment is parallel to the electric field ⃗, no torque acts on the
dipole. Therefore, electric dipole is in stable equilibrium.
2. If = 900, then = pE 90 = pE (maximum).
Thus, when dipole moment is perpendicular to the electric field ⃗, maximum
torque acts on the dipole.
3. If = 1800, then = pE 180 = 0.
Thus, when moment is anti-parallel to the electric field ⃗ , no torque acts on the
dipole. The electric dipole is in unstable equilibrium.
Questions:
Q1. A dipole of dipole moment p is present in a uniform electric field E. write the values of
the angle between p and E for which the torque experienced by the dipole is minimum.
Ans:- Torque acting on an electric dipole, = pE
If θ = 00, then torque will be minimum.
Q2. What orientation of an electric dipole in uniform electric field corresponds to its (i)
stable and (ii) unstable equilibrium?
Ans:-
(i) In stable equilibrium, the electric dipole is parallel to the direction of electric
field. i.e θ = 0 .
(ii) In unstable equilibrium, the electric dipole is antiparallel to the direction of
electric field, i.e θ = 1800.
Q3. An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field
(i) Show that the net force acting on it is zero.
(ii) The dipole is aligned parallel to the field. Find the work done in rotating it
through the angle of 1800.

 ELECTRIC FLUX:
Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the total number of electric field
lines passing through that surface. It is denoted by ∅.
∅=ES
It is a scalar quantity and S.I unit of electric flux is Nm2c-1.
Dimensional formula of electric flux is [ML3T-3A-1].
If we consider a small surface area ⃗ in a electric field ⃗, then electric flux through
the surface the element is given by, ∅ = ⃗ . ⃗

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 14

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

Hence, the total electric flux through the whole surface is given by,
∫ ∅ = ∫ ⃗. ⃗ = ∫
∴ ∅ = ∫ ⃗. ⃗
Thus, total electric flux through a surface in an electric field may be defined as the
surface integral of the electric field over that surface.
Special cases:
1. If θ = 00 i.e, the electric field ⃗ is perpendicular to the plane of the surface, then
electric flux through the surface is given by,
∅ = ∫ ⃗. ⃗ = ∫ 0 =∫ =E∫ = ES
Thus , electric flux through through the surface is maximum, if electric field is
perpendicular to the plane of the surface.
2. If θ = 900 i.e, the electric field ⃗ is parallel to the plane of the surface, then electric
flux through the surface is given by,
∅ = ∫ ⃗. ⃗ = ∫ 90 = 0
Thus, electric flux through the surface is zero, if electric field is parallel to the plane
of the surface.
3. If θ = 1800 i.e, the electric field ⃗ is anti-parallel to the area vector of the surface,
then electric flux through the surface is given by,
∅ = ∫ ⃗. ⃗ = ∫ 180 = - E∫ = - ES
Thus, electric flux is negative.
It is a scalar quantity and S.I unit of electric flux is Nm2c-1.
Dimensional formula of electric flux is [ML3T-3A-1]
 GAUSS’S THEOREM:According to Gauss’s theorem, the total electric flux (∅) through
any closed surface (S) in free space is equal to times the total electric charge (q)
enclosed by the surface.
∅ = ∫ ⃗. ⃗ =
Where q is the total charge enclosed by the surface S and is the
permittivity of free space.
⃗
Proof:
Consider an isolated point charge +q placed at point O. d⃗
let us draw a gaussian sphere of radius r with centre O
around the charge +q and the direction of E⃗ is radially
outward from the charge. ⃗
o
Now, consider a small element of area ds⃗ on this q
surface.Then the electric flux passing through the closed
surface is given by,
∴ = ∮ E⃗ . ds⃗
= ∮ E ds cos 0
= ∮ E ds

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 15

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

= E ∮ ds ……………….(i)
But, Electric field intensity due to charge +q is given by,
∴ E =
Eqn- (i) becomes, we get
∴ = x ∮ ds

= x4 [∵ ∮ ds = surface area of the sphere]

=
∴ =
This is Gauss’s theorem.
Special cases:
1. If the closed surface does not enclose by charge. i.e, q = 0, then
∴ = ∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ = = 0
2. If the closed surface contains two equal and opposite charges, then the net charge
in the closed surface = +q – q = 0.
∴ =0
3. Net electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net amount
of charge enclosed within the surface, but is independent of the size of the closed
surface.
4. A charge outside a closed surface having no charge inside does not affect the net
electric flux of the surface.
Note:
1. Outward electric flux through a closed surface is taken as positive.
i.e. = ∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =
2. Inward electric flux through a closed surface is taken as
⃗
negative.
d⃗
i.e. = ∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =
 Deduction of Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law:
⃗
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance o
r. draw a shere of radius r with centre O.
Now consider a small area element of area dS over the
surface.
Then,
According to Gauss’ theorem,

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 16

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =
∮ E ds cos 0 =
∮ Eds =
Since ⃗ is constant at all points on the Gaussian surface, so
E ∮ ds =
But, ∮ ds = surface area of the sphere of radius = 4
E × 4 =

E =
Therefore, force experienced by q2 is given by,
F = q2E
= q2 x

∴ F=
Which is the mathematical form of Coulomb’s law.
 Application of Gauss’s theorem:
1. Electric field intensity due to an infinitely long straight charged wire or line:
Consider an infinite long straight
charged wire having linear charge density .
Then, we have to calculate the electric field
intensity at a point P, distant r from the
charged wire. Draw an imaginary Gaussian
cylinder of radius r and length around the charged line.
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q =
According to Gauss’s theorem,
∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ = = ……..(i)
The Gaussian surface is divided into three parts.
Eqn. (i) can be written as,
∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =∮ ⃗. ⃗ + ∮ ⃗. ⃗ + ∮ ⃗. ⃗ = ………..(ii)
But, for surfaces I and III, angle between ⃗ and ⃗ is 900,
So, ⃗. ds⃗ = EdS cos 900 = 0. Therefore, electric flux will consider only curved
surface.
Eqn. (ii) becomes, we get,

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 17

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

∮ ⃗. ⃗ =

∮ 0 =

∮ =
Since electric field intensity E is constant at every point of the Gaussion
surface.
∴ ∫ =

But, ∫ = area of the curved surface of the cylinder = 2

∴ Ex2 =

E =

Thus, E∝
In vector form, ⃗ = where is a unit vector perpendicular to the
curved surface of the wire.
2. Electric field intensity due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet:
Consider a thin infinite plane sheet
having uniform surface charge density ‘σ’. Let
us find the electric field intensity at point P at
a perpendicular distance ‘r’ from the sheet.
Let us draw the Guassian surface in the
form of a closed cylinder of length r on each
side of sheet with end caps of area S. So,
electric field ⃗ is perpendicular to the sheet.
Then, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q = σ S
According to Gauss’s theorem,
∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =
Since Gaussian surface is divided into three parts i.e. two end caps and curved
surface of the cylinder.
Eqn. (i) becomes, we get
∴ ∮ ⃗. ⃗ + ∮ ⃗. ⃗ + ∮ ⃗. ⃗ = [∵ q = σ S]

⟹ ∮ +∮ +∮ =

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 18

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

But, angle between ⃗ and ⃗ is 00 for two end caps (I and II) and angle
between ⃗ and ⃗ is 900 for curved surface (III)
∴ ∮ 0 +∮ 0 +∮ 90 =

⟹ ∮ + ∮ + 0=

⟹ ∮ + ∮ =

⟹ ES + ES =

⟹ 2ES =
∴ E=
In vector form, ⃗= , where is a unit vector perpendicular to plane of the
sheet poiting away from it.
Special case:
If the plane sheet has a finite thickness, then charges on both sides of the
sheet are to be considered. Thus,
∴ E=
3. Electric field intensity due to two parallel infinitely plane sheet of charge:
Consider two parallel infinite plane thin sheets A and B with uniform surface charge
densities and respectively placed at a certain distance of seperation of y-z
plane.
We know that electric field intensity due to infinite sheet of charge at a point is
given by, E=
Therefore, electric fields due to sheets A and B are given by,
̂ ̂
⃗ = and ⃗ =
In region I, the net electric field is given by,
⃗ =−⃗ − ⃗
̂ ̂
=− −
̂
∴ ⃗ =− ( + ) …………(i)
In the region II, the net electric field is given by,
⃗ = ⃗ − ⃗
̂ ̂
= −
̂
∴ ⃗ = ( − ) …………..(ii)

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 19

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

In the region III, the net electric field is given by,

⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗
̂ ̂
= +
̂
∴ ⃗ = ( + ) ……………….(iii)
Special case:
If the sheet A is positively charged and B is equally negatively charged i.e = and
= - , then
̂
⃗ =− ( − )=0
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ = − (− ) = =
̂
⃗ = ( − )=0
Thus, electric field between the two equally and oppositely charged sheets is
̂
constant and its magnitude is given by, ⃗=
4. Electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell:
Consider a positive charge q distributed uniformly on the surface of a spherical shell
of radius R. Let P be the point outside the shell at
a distance r from the centre of the shell (r > R).
Draw a Gaussian surface in the form of a sphere
of radius r with O as the centre.
According to Gauss’s theorem,
∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =
∮ E ds cos θ = …………(i)
Since ⃗ and ⃗ are along the same direction, so θ = 00
∮ E ds cos 0 =
∮ E ds =
Since E at all points on the Gaussian surface is same and directed radially outward.
∮ ds =
But , ∮ ds = surface area of the spherical Gaussian surface = 4
Ex4 =

E=
When the point of observation (P) is at the surface of the shell, then r = R

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 20

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

E=
Now, q = = x4 , where = surface charge density of the charge on the
shell.
×
Hence, E=
E=
Let P be the point inside the shell at a distance ( < ) from the centre of the
shell. Draw a Gaussian sphere of radius r with O as a centre.
According to Gauss’s theorem,
∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ =
Here, Gaussian surface encloses no charge i.e. q = 0
∮ E⃗ . ds⃗ = 0
∴ E=0
Thus, there is no electric field inside a uniformly charge thin spherical shell.
Variation of electric field intensities (E) with distance (r) from the centre O of the charged
spherical shell is shown as fig.
i. When, r < R, then E = 0
ii. When, r = R, then E = = (i.e. maximum
value).
iii. When, r > R, then E = or E ∝
Questions:
Q1. What is the electric flux through a cube of side 1 cm which encloses an electric
dipole?
Ans:- Net electric flux is zero because net charge of the electric dipole is zero.
Q2. How does the electric flux due to a point charge enclosed by a spherical Gaussian
surface get affected when its radius is increased?
Ans:- Electric flux through a Gaussian surface enclosing the charge q is = . If radius is
increased, the electric flux through the surface will remain unchanged because electric
flux is independent of size of closed surface.
Q3. A charge q is placed at the centre of a cube of side cm. What is the electric flux
passing through two opposite faces of the cube?
Ans:- Electric flux through each of the six faces of the cube will be same when charge q is
placed at its centre.
∴ =

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 21

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

Thus, electric flux passing though two opposite faces of the cube,
=2× ∙
∴ =
Q4. The electric field in the region between a pair of oppositely charged plates, each of 10-
2
sq.m in area is 104 N/C. What is the charge on each plate?
Ans:- Here, E = 104 N/C
Area of charged plates, A = 10-2 sq.m
Charged on each plate, q = ?

Now , E=
But, surface charge density, =
∴ E =
⟹ q=
= 104 x 10-2 x 8.85 x 10-12
= 8.85 x 10-10 C
Q5. A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 has a charge ‘Q’ . A
charge ‘q’ is placed at the centre of the shell.
i. What is the surface charge density on the (i) inner surface, (ii) outer surface of
the shell?
ii. Write the expression for the electric field at a point > r2 from the centre of the
shell.
Ans:-
i) We know that,
Charge Q resides on outer surface of spherical conducting shell. Due to
charge q placed at centre, charge induced on inner surface is –q and on outer
surface it is +q. So, total charge on inner surface –q and on outer surface it is Q +
q.
Surface charge density on inner surface = −

Surface charge density on outer surface =

ii) For external points, whoke charge acts at centre, so electric field at distance >
r2 ,
=
Q6. Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 x 103 ̂ N/C.

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 22

CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

i) What is the flux of this field through a square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is
parallel to the YZ- plane?
ii) What is the flux through the same square, if the normal to its plane makes an
angle 600 with the x-axis?
Ans:- Given,
E = 3 x 103 ̂ N/C
This electric field is directed towards X – axis.
i) As the surface is in YZ – plane, so the area vector is along x – axis.
Area, S = 10 x 10 cm2 = 10-2 m2
∴ Area vector, S = 10-2 ̂ m2
Now, electric flux, ∅ = ⃗. ⃗
=
= 0 [ ∵ angle between E and S is 00]
= ES
= 3 x 103 x 10-2
= 30 Nm2/C.
ii) Now, Y
The area vector makes an angle of 600 with X – axis.
E = 3 x 103 ̂ N/C
E
Area, S = 10 x 10 cm2 = 10-2 m2
S
θ = 600 X
we have, electric flux, ∅ = ⃗. ⃗
= ES cos 600
Z
3 -2
= 3 x 10 x 10 x
= 15 Nm2/C.
Q7. Use Gauss’s law to derive the expression for the electric field between the two
uniformly charge parallel, sheets with surface charge densities + σ and – σ , respectively.
Ans:- Let us consider two uniformly charge parallel sheets having surface charge densities
+ σ and – σ and separated by a small distance r from each other.
By Gauss’s law, the electric field intensity due to a uniformly charged infinite plane
sheet is given by,
E=
As the electric field is directed normally outward from the plane sheet, if the nature
of charge on sheet is positive and normally inward, if the charge is of negative nature.
Let ̂ be the unit vector directed from positive plate to negative plate.
Now, electric field intensity at any point P between the two plate is given by,
Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 23
CLASS – XII (PHYSICS)
UNIT – I (ELECTROSTATICS) (UMAJIT’S PHYSICS SERIES)

E1 = + ̂ [due to positive charge plate]

And E2 = + ̂ [due to negative charge plate]
∴ E = E1 + E2
= ̂+ ̂
= ̂
Thus, uniform electric field is produced between the two infinite parallel plane
sheet of charge which is directed from positive plate to negative plate.

**************

Umajit’s Physics Tuition Centre, Kakwa Naorem Leikai,Imphal 24