Classification of Data Structures
A Data Structure delivers a structured set of variables related to each
other in various ways. It forms the basis of a programming tool that
signifies the relationship between the data elements and allows
programmers to process the data efficiently.
We can classify Data Structures into two categories:
1. Primitive Data Structure
2. Non-Primitive Data Structure
The following figure shows the different classifications of Data Structures.
Figure 2: Classifications of Data Structures
Primitive Data Structures
1. Primitive Data Structures are the data structures consisting of
the numbers and the characters that come in-built into programs.
2. These data structures can be manipulated or operated directly by
machine-level instructions.
3. Basic data types like Integer, Float, Character,
and Boolean come under the Primitive Data Structures.
4. These data types are also called Simple data types, as they
contain characters that can't be divided further
Non-Primitive Data Structures
1. Non-Primitive Data Structures are those data structures derived
from Primitive Data Structures.
2. These data structures can't be manipulated or operated directly by
machine-level instructions.
3. The focus of these data structures is on forming a set of data
elements that is either homogeneous (same data type)
or heterogeneous (different data types).
4. Based on the structure and arrangement of data, we can divide
these data structures into two sub-categories -
a. Linear Data Structures
b. Non-Linear Data Structures
Linear Data Structures
A data structure that preserves a linear connection among its data
elements is known as a Linear Data Structure. The arrangement of the
data is done linearly, where each element consists of the successors and
predecessors except the first and the last data element. However, it is not
necessarily true in the case of memory, as the arrangement may not be
sequential.
Based on memory allocation, the Linear Data Structures are further
classified into two types:
1. Static Data Structures: The data structures having a fixed size
are known as Static Data Structures. The memory for these data
structures is allocated at the compiler time, and their size cannot be
changed by the user after being compiled; however, the data stored
in them can be altered.
The Array is the best example of the Static Data Structure as they
have a fixed size, and its data can be modified later.
2. Dynamic Data Structures: The data structures having a dynamic
size are known as Dynamic Data Structures. The memory of these
data structures is allocated at the run time, and their size varies
during the run time of the code. Moreover, the user can change the
size as well as the data elements stored in these data structures at
the run time of the code.
Linked Lists, Stacks, and Queues are common examples of
dynamic data structures
Types of Linear Data Structures
The following is the list of Linear Data Structures that we generally use:
1. Arrays
An Array is a data structure used to collect multiple data elements of the
same data type into one variable. Instead of storing multiple values of the
same data types in separate variable names, we could store all of them
together into one variable. This statement doesn't imply that we will have
to unite all the values of the same data type in any program into one
array of that data type. But there will often be times when some specific
variables of the same data types are all related to one another in a way
appropriate for an array.
An Array is a list of elements where each element has a unique place in
the list. The data elements of the array share the same variable name;
however, each carries a different index number called a subscript. We can
access any data element from the list with the help of its location in the
list. Thus, the key feature of the arrays to understand is that the data is
stored in contiguous memory locations, making it possible for the users to
traverse through the data elements of the array using their respective
indexes.
Figure 3. An Array
Arrays can be classified into different types:
a. One-Dimensional Array: An Array with only one row of data
elements is known as a One-Dimensional Array. It is stored in
ascending storage location.
b. Two-Dimensional Array: An Array consisting of multiple rows and
columns of data elements is called a Two-Dimensional Array. It is
also known as a Matrix.
c. Multidimensional Array: We can define Multidimensional Array as
an Array of Arrays. Multidimensional Arrays are not bounded to two
indices or two dimensions as they can include as many indices are
per the need.
Some Applications of Array:
a. We can store a list of data elements belonging to the same data
type.
b. Array acts as an auxiliary storage for other data structures.
c. The array also helps store data elements of a binary tree of the
fixed count.
d. Array also acts as a storage of matrices.
2. Linked Lists
A Linked List is another example of a linear data structure used to store
a collection of data elements dynamically. Data elements in this data
structure are represented by the Nodes, connected using links or pointers.
Each node contains two fields, the information field consists of the actual
data, and the pointer field consists of the address of the subsequent
nodes in the list. The pointer of the last node of the linked list consists of a
null pointer, as it points to nothing. Unlike the Arrays, the user can
dynamically adjust the size of a Linked List as per the requirements.
Figure 4. A Linked List
Linked Lists can be classified into different types:
a. Singly Linked List: A Singly Linked List is the most common type
of Linked List. Each node has data and a pointer field containing an
address to the next node.
b. Doubly Linked List: A Doubly Linked List consists of an
information field and two pointer fields. The information field
contains the data. The first pointer field contains an address of the
previous node, whereas another pointer field contains a reference to
the next node. Thus, we can go in both directions (backward as well
as forward).
c. Circular Linked List: The Circular Linked List is similar to the
Singly Linked List. The only key difference is that the last node
contains the address of the first node, forming a circular loop in the
Circular Linked List.
Some Applications of Linked Lists:
a. The Linked Lists help us implement stacks, queues, binary trees,
and graphs of predefined size.
b. We can also implement Operating System's function for dynamic
memory management.
c. Linked Lists also allow polynomial implementation for mathematical
operations.
d. We can use Circular Linked List to implement Operating Systems or
application functions that Round Robin execution of tasks.
e. Circular Linked List is also helpful in a Slide Show where a user
requires to go back to the first slide after the last slide is presented.
f. Doubly Linked List is utilized to implement forward and backward
buttons in a browser to move forward and backward in the opened
pages of a website.
3. Stacks
A Stack is a Linear Data Structure that follows the LIFO (Last In, First
Out) principle that allows operations like insertion and deletion from one
end of the Stack, i.e., Top. Stacks can be implemented with the help of
contiguous memory, an Array, and non-contiguous memory, a Linked List.
Real-life examples of Stacks are piles of books, a deck of cards, piles of
money, and many more.
Figure 5. A Real-life Example of Stack
The above figure represents the real-life example of a Stack where the
operations are performed from one end only, like the insertion and
removal of new books from the top of the Stack. It implies that the
insertion and deletion in the Stack can be done only from the top of the
Stack. We can access only the Stack's tops at any given time.
The primary operations in the Stack are as follows:
a. Push: Operation to insert a new element in the Stack is termed as
Push Operation.
b. Pop: Operation to remove or delete elements from the Stack is
termed as Pop Operation.
Figure 6. A Stack
Some Applications of Stacks:
a. The Stack is used as a Temporary Storage Structure for recursive
operations.
b. Stack is also utilized as Auxiliary Storage Structure for function calls,
nested operations, and deferred/postponed functions.
c. We can manage function calls using Stacks.
d. Stacks are also utilized to evaluate the arithmetic expressions in
different programming languages.
e. Stacks are also helpful in converting infix expressions to postfix
expressions.
f. Stacks allow us to check the expression's syntax in the
programming environment.
g. We can match parenthesis using Stacks.
h. Stacks can be used to reverse a String.
i. Stacks are helpful in solving problems based on backtracking.
j. We can use Stacks in depth-first search in graph and tree traversal.
k. Stacks are also used in Operating System functions.
l. Stacks are also used in UNDO and REDO functions in an edit.
4. Queues
A Queue is a linear data structure similar to a Stack with some limitations
on the insertion and deletion of the elements. The insertion of an element
in a Queue is done at one end, and the removal is done at another or
opposite end. Thus, we can conclude that the Queue data structure
follows FIFO (First In, First Out) principle to manipulate the data elements.
Implementation of Queues can be done using Arrays, Linked Lists, or
Stacks. Some real-life examples of Queues are a line at the ticket counter,
an escalator, a car wash, and many more.
Figure 7. A Real-life Example of Queue
The above image is a real-life illustration of a movie ticket counter that
can help us understand the Queue where the customer who comes first is
always served first. The customer arriving last will undoubtedly be served
last. Both ends of the Queue are open and can execute different
operations. Another example is a food court line where the customer is
inserted from the rear end while the customer is removed at the front end
after providing the service they asked for.
The following are the primary operations of the Queue:
a. Enqueue: The insertion or Addition of some data elements to the
Queue is called Enqueue. The element insertion is always done with
the help of the rear pointer.
b. Dequeue: Deleting or removing data elements from the Queue is
termed Dequeue. The deletion of the element is always done with
the help of the front pointer.
Figure 8. A Queue
Some Applications of Queues:
a. Queues are generally used in the breadth search operation in
Graphs.
b. Queues are also used in Job Scheduler Operations of Operating
Systems, like a keyboard buffer queue to store the keys pressed by
users and a print buffer queue to store the documents printed by
the printer.
c. Queues are responsible for CPU scheduling, Job scheduling, and Disk
Scheduling.
d. Priority Queues are utilized in file-downloading operations in a
browser.
e. Queues are also used to transfer data between peripheral devices
and the CPU.
f. Queues are also responsible for handling interrupts generated by
the User Applications for the CPU.
Non-Linear Data Structures
Non-Linear Data Structures are data structures where the data elements
are not arranged in sequential order. Here, the insertion and removal of
data are not feasible in a linear manner. There exists a hierarchical
relationship between the individual data items.
Types of Non-Linear Data Structures
The following is the list of Non-Linear Data Structures that we generally
use:
1. Trees
A Tree is a Non-Linear Data Structure and a hierarchy containing a
collection of nodes such that each node of the tree stores a value and a
list of references to other nodes (the "children").
The Tree data structure is a specialized method to arrange and collect
data in the computer to be utilized more effectively. It contains a central
node, structural nodes, and sub-nodes connected via edges. We can also
say that the tree data structure consists of roots, branches, and leaves
connected.
Figure 9. A Tree
Trees can be classified into different types:
a. Binary Tree: A Tree data structure where each parent node can
have at most two children is termed a Binary Tree.
b. Binary Search Tree: A Binary Search Tree is a Tree data structure
where we can easily maintain a sorted list of numbers.
c. AVL Tree: An AVL Tree is a self-balancing Binary Search Tree where
each node maintains extra information known as a Balance Factor
whose value is either -1, 0, or +1.
d. B-Tree: A B-Tree is a special type of self-balancing Binary Search
Tree where each node consists of multiple keys and can have more
than two children.
Some Applications of Trees:
a. Trees implement hierarchical structures in computer systems like
directories and file systems.
b. Trees are also used to implement the navigation structure of a
website.
c. We can generate code like Huffman's code using Trees.
d. Trees are also helpful in decision-making in Gaming applications.
e. Trees are responsible for implementing priority queues for priority-
based OS scheduling functions.
f. Trees are also responsible for parsing expressions and statements in
the compilers of different programming languages.
g. We can use Trees to store data keys for indexing for Database
Management System (DBMS).
h. Spanning Trees allows us to route decisions in Computer and
Communications Networks.
i. Trees are also used in the path-finding algorithm implemented in
Artificial Intelligence (AI), Robotics, and Video Games Applications.
2. Graphs
A Graph is another example of a Non-Linear Data Structure comprising a
finite number of nodes or vertices and the edges connecting them. The
Graphs are utilized to address problems of the real world in which it
denotes the problem area as a network such as social networks, circuit
networks, and telephone networks. For instance, the nodes or vertices of a
Graph can represent a single user in a telephone network, while the edges
represent the link between them via telephone.
The Graph data structure, G is considered a mathematical structure
comprised of a set of vertices, V and a set of edges, E as shown below:
G = (V,E)
Figure 10. A Graph
The above figure represents a Graph having seven vertices A, B, C, D, E,
F, G, and ten edges [A, B], [A, C], [B, C], [B, D], [B, E], [C, D], [D, E], [D, F],
[E, F], and [E, G].
Depending upon the position of the vertices and edges, the
Graphs can be classified into different types:
a. Null Graph: A Graph with an empty set of edges is termed a Null
Graph.
b. Trivial Graph: A Graph having only one vertex is termed a Trivial
Graph.
c. Simple Graph: A Graph with neither self-loops nor multiple edges
is known as a Simple Graph.
d. Multi Graph: A Graph is said to be Multi if it consists of multiple
edges but no self-loops.
e. Pseudo Graph: A Graph with self-loops and multiple edges is
termed a Pseudo Graph.
f. Non-Directed Graph: A Graph consisting of non-directed edges is
known as a Non-Directed Graph.
g. Directed Graph: A Graph consisting of the directed edges between
the vertices is known as a Directed Graph.
h. Connected Graph: A Graph with at least a single path between
every pair of vertices is termed a Connected Graph.
i. Disconnected Graph: A Graph where there does not exist any
path between at least one pair of vertices is termed a Disconnected
Graph.
j. Regular Graph: A Graph where all vertices have the same degree
is termed a Regular Graph.
k. Complete Graph: A Graph in which all vertices have an edge
between every pair of vertices is known as a Complete Graph.
l. Cycle Graph: A Graph is said to be a Cycle if it has at least three
vertices and edges that form a cycle.
m. Cyclic Graph: A Graph is said to be Cyclic if and only if at least one
cycle exists.
n. Acyclic Graph: A Graph having zero cycles is termed an Acyclic
Graph.
o. Finite Graph: A Graph with a finite number of vertices and edges is
known as a Finite Graph.
p. Infinite Graph: A Graph with an infinite number of vertices and
edges is known as an Infinite Graph.
q. Bipartite Graph: A Graph where the vertices can be divided into
independent sets A and B, and all the vertices of set A should only
be connected to the vertices present in set B with some edges is
termed a Bipartite Graph.
r. Planar Graph: A Graph is said to be a Planar if we can draw it in a
single plane with two edges intersecting each other.
s. Euler Graph: A Graph is said to be Euler if and only if all the
vertices are even degrees.
t. Hamiltonian Graph: A Connected Graph consisting of a
Hamiltonian circuit is known as a Hamiltonian Graph.
Some Applications of Graphs:
a. Graphs help us represent routes and networks in transportation,
travel, and communication applications.
b. Graphs are used to display routes in GPS.
c. Graphs also help us represent the interconnections in social
networks and other network-based applications.
d. Graphs are utilized in mapping applications.
e. Graphs are responsible for the representation of user preference in
e-commerce applications.
f. Graphs are also used in Utility networks in order to identify the
problems posed to local or municipal corporations.
g. Graphs also help to manage the utilization and availability of
resources in an organization.
h. Graphs are also used to make document link maps of the websites
in order to display the connectivity between the pages through
hyperlinks.
i. Graphs are also used in robotic motions and neural networks.
Basic Operations of Data Structures
In the following section, we will discuss the different types of operations
that we can perform to manipulate data in every data structure:
1. Traversal: Traversing a data structure means accessing each data
element exactly once so it can be administered. For example,
traversing is required while printing the names of all the employees
in a department.
2. Search: Search is another data structure operation which means to
find the location of one or more data elements that meet certain
constraints. Such a data element may or may not be present in the
given set of data elements. For example, we can use the search
operation to find the names of all the employees who have the
experience of more than 5 years.
3. Insertion: Insertion means inserting or adding new data elements
to the collection. For example, we can use the insertion operation to
add the details of a new employee the company has recently hired.
4. Deletion: Deletion means to remove or delete a specific data
element from the given list of data elements. For example, we can
use the deleting operation to delete the name of an employee who
has left the job.
5. Sorting: Sorting means to arrange the data elements in either
Ascending or Descending order depending on the type of
application. For example, we can use the sorting operation to
arrange the names of employees in a department in alphabetical
order or estimate the top three performers of the month by
arranging the performance of the employees in descending order
and extracting the details of the top three.
6. Merge: Merge means to combine data elements of two sorted lists
in order to form a single list of sorted data elements.
7. Create: Create is an operation used to reserve memory for the data
elements of the program. We can perform this operation using a
declaration statement. The creation of data structure can take place
either during the following:
a. Compile-time
b. Run-time
For example, the malloc() function is used in C Language to
create data structure.
8. Selection: Selection means selecting a particular data from the
available data. We can select any particular data by specifying
conditions inside the loop.
9. Update: The Update operation allows us to update or modify the
data in the data structure. We can also update any particular data
by specifying some conditions inside the loop, like the Selection
operation.
10. Splitting: The Splitting operation allows us to divide data into
various subparts decreasing the overall process completion time.
Understanding the Abstract Data Type
As per the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a
data structure is an arrangement of information, generally in the memory,
for better algorithm efficiency. Data Structures include linked lists, stacks,
queues, trees, and dictionaries. They could also be a theoretical entity,
like the name and address of a person.
From the definition mentioned above, we can conclude that the operations
in data structure include:
a. A high level of abstractions like addition or deletion of an item from
a list.
b. Searching and sorting an item in a list.
c. Accessing the highest priority item in a list.
Whenever the data structure does such operations, it is known as
an Abstract Data Type (ADT).
We can define it as a set of data elements along with the operations on
the data. The term "abstract" refers to the fact that the data and the
fundamental operations defined on it are being studied independently of
their implementation. It includes what we can do with the data, not how
we can do it.
An ADI implementation contains a storage structure in order to store the
data elements and algorithms for fundamental operation. All the data
structures, like an array, linked list, queue, stack, etc., are examples of
ADT.
Understanding the Advantages of using ADTs
In the real world, programs evolve as a consequence of new constraints or
requirements, so modifying a program generally requires a change in one
or multiple data structures. For example, suppose we want to insert a new
field into an employee's record to keep track of more details about each
employee. In that case, we can improve the efficiency of the program by
replacing an Array with a Linked structure. In such a situation, rewriting
every procedure that utilizes the modified structure is unsuitable. Hence,
a better alternative is to separate a data structure from its
implementation information. This is the principle behind the usage of
Abstract Data Types (ADT).
Some Applications of Data Structures
The following are some applications of Data Structures:
1. Data Structures help in the organization of data in a computer's
memory.
2. Data Structures also help in representing the information in
databases.
3. Data Structures allows the implementation of algorithms to search
through data (For example, search engine).
4. We can use the Data Structures to implement the algorithms to
manipulate data (For example, word processors).
5. We can also implement the algorithms to analyse data using Data
Structures (For example, data miners).
6. Data Structures support algorithms to generate the data (For
example, a random number generator).
7. Data Structures also support algorithms to compress and
decompress the data (For example, a zip utility).
8. We can also use Data Structures to implement algorithms to encrypt
and decrypt the data (For example, a security system).
9. With the help of Data Structures, we can build software that can
manage files and directories (For example, a file manager).
10. We can also develop software that can render graphics using
Data Structures. (For example, a web browser or 3D rendering
software).
Apart from those, as mentioned earlier, there are many other applications
of Data Structures that can help us build any desired software.