CHAPTER ONE

1.0 BACKGROUND

Timers were originally designed to fulfill a need in industry for a means of

keeping time on certain devices. Originally, these timers were mechanical devices and

used clockwork mechanisms as a means of keeping a regular time (Timer, 2006). The

invention of two electromechanical timer designs allowed for more precise time

measurement. The first uses the principle of heat expansion to increase the temperature of

a metal finger made of two different metals with differing rates of thermal expansion

(Timer, 2006). As electric current flows through the metal, it begins to heat and one side

expands more quickly than the other which, in turn, moves the electrical contact away

from an electrical switch contact. The second uses a small AC motor which turns at a

predetermined rate due to the application of an alternating current (Timer, 2006).

Digital clocks can be used to tell time at a glance. They became quickly more

popular than the older sweep hand clocks, now known as analog clocks. The time derived

by analog clocks came from either a pendulum or a spring. Pendulums are unusable on

moving platforms, such as a ship, and springs unwind more and more slowly as they

release stored up tension. The use of sweep hands allowed these mechanical time bases to

be presented in a mechanically driven display. With the perfecting of multivibrator chips,

electrical circuits could be built that could accurately keep time under a wide range of

conditions. As the time base had switched from mechanical to electrical, the time display

1
had to follow suit. Display devices called 7 segment displays were designed to allow the

time to be shown numerically.

Finally, digital clocks were invented. Digital logic circuits are now so cheap that it

has become a better investment to buy a digital timer than a mechanical or

electromechanical timer. Individual timers are implemented with single chip circuits,

similar to a watch (Timer, 2006). The 555 timer used in this project is a combination of a

digital logic circuit and analogue components.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The first clock that was invented was analogue clock which has no other features apart
from time and it also consumes higher power and stops working as soon as the power
battery is removed. These disadvantages also happen in our digital clocks – their time is
reset or stopped as soon as the system power battery or source is removed. However,
digital real time clock came to overcome these problems. Digital time clock counts hours,
minutes, seconds, months, days and even years digitally.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The objective of this project is to:

i. Construct a device that will display the time in seconds, minutes and hours.
ii. Design an alarm clock that can be set using the switch.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

You truly cannot be an organized human being unless you use a good timing system!
And if you’re still someone who likes to keep all of their appointments, activities - I
highly encourage you to consider tossing out the paper and find an electronic clock
system that works for you.

One of the most beautiful things about digital clock is that they can be synced, so you can
have your clock on your smart phone, your tablet, your laptop, as well as it can sync to
your husband’s electronic clock and your kids’ clock. So no matter where you are- you
can easily look up and see what your current appointments are for any given day. And the

2
important people in your life can know the latest schedule and commitments too- without
coming home and consulting the kitchen wall.

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL CLOCK

Even if there is power failure, this clock displays the right time using an inverter.

Simplicity of the system.

Accuracy of the system.

1.6 APPLICATIONS

Because digital clock is very small and inexpensive devices that enhance the popularity
of product designs, they are often incorporated into all kinds of devices such as

• Cars

• Radios

• Televisions

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORY OF ALARM CLOCKS.

We may not always be happy with alarm clocks, we couldn't live without them! Those
annoying devices that pull us from our peaceful slumbers keep the world functioning.

As technology has progressed over the years, so have our alarm clocks. They've changed
many times, but the concept has remained almost entirely the same. The history of alarm
clocks and their progression through the centuries is an interesting story. What started as
something ancient that used running streams and the stars to track time is now an online
device, we all carry in our back pockets.

Let's delve into the history of when alarm clocks were invented, who the first person to
use an alarm clock was, and how people woke up before they were invented.

When Was the Alarm Clock First Invented?

It's assumed that the alarm clock was first invented back in 222 BC by the Hellenistic
inventor Ctesibius by fixing a mechanical device to his clepsydras. These were ancient
water clocks used to measure time using the gradual flow of water.

Around 222 BC, Ctesibius fitted a mechanical device to his clepsydras that would drop
pebbles onto a gong or blow trumpets when the water reached a certain flow. Without
knowing it, Ctesibius had just invented the first alarm clock that would soon be used
across the world less than 2,000 years later!

He wasn't the only one that had the idea of notifying people what time it was using an
ancient alarm clock. Plato in ancient Greece used a water clock to signal the beginning of

4
his lectures, while the Buddhist monk inventor Yi Xing in China used the stars to get a
clock to strike once an hour.

But it wasn't until the 15th century that alarm clocks started to take shape in Europe as we
know them today. We don't know who the inventor was, but we know the devices had a
ring of holes on each number and a pin that could be placed in one of them to set the
alarm.

Who Was the First Person to Use an Alarm Clock?

The first recorded person to use a modern-day alarm clock is reported to be the American
Levi Hutchins in 1787. He only made the device for himself, which is why it had just
one setting - to sound every day at 4 AM.

Thankfully, Levi Hutchins had no intention of turning a profit from his device and never
created another 4 AM alarm clock ever again. It wasn't until the French inventor Antoine
Rédier patented an adjustable mechanical alarm clock in 1847 that the devices began to
soar in popularity.

Since the patent only applied to Europe, Seth E. Thomas kicked things off in America
by creating a wind-up alarm clock that was produced and sold to the masses. This was a
turning point and is said to be when alarm clocks became commonplace in the general
population.

How Did People Wake Up Before Alarm Clocks?

Before alarm clocks were invented, people used to wake up when the sun rose or their
servants woke them up. Waking up at a certain time wasn't important for people back
then, likely because they had no way of waking up at a certain time!

It wasn't until factory work came about that people needed to start their day at a certain
time. Usually, people lived close to where they worked, so many factories would blow
whistles to wake up the workers nearby.

However, this wasn't the case in Britain and Ireland. Before alarm clocks were popular,
they used a different tactic and employed knocker-uppers. These knocker-uppers would

5
walk the streets banging on people's doors and windows to wake them up. They would
often use large poles or pea shooters to reach the upstairs bedrooms.

2.2 TYPES OF ALARM CLOCKS AND THEIR EVOLUTION.

The evolutionary journey of alarm clocks spans centuries and has seen the development
of various mechanisms and designs to wake people up at specific times. Here's a brief
overview of the key milestones in the history of alarm clocks:

i. Water Clocks (circa 250 BCE): The earliest form of alarm clocks can be traced
back to ancient Greece, where water clocks, also known as clepsydra, were used.
These devices used the flow of water from one container to another to measure
time. A whistle or gong would sound when a certain level of water was reached,
serving as an early form of an alarm.
ii. Candle Clocks (circa 520 CE): Candle clocks were developed during the Middle
Ages. These clocks had candles with markings at specific intervals. As the candle
burned, the wax would melt, and when it reached a marked level, a metal pin
would fall and make a noise, signaling the time to wake up.
iii. Mechanical Clocks (14th century): Mechanical clocks began to emerge in
medieval Europe. These clocks used gears and springs to measure time. Although
initially large and expensive, some were equipped with alarm mechanisms. The
clocks were primarily located in churches and public places, and their alarm
functions were used to signal important events rather than waking individuals.
iv. Pocket Watches with Alarm (17th century): The portable pocket watch,
invented in the 17th century, eventually incorporated alarm features. These
watches had a small mechanism that could be set to trigger an alarm at a specific
time.
v. Winding Clocks (19th century): The 19th century saw the development of
clockwork mechanisms that could be wound up to power alarm functions. These
clocks, often placed on bedside tables, became more common as industrialization
progressed.
vi. Bell Alarm Clocks (19th century): Around the same time, bell alarm clocks were
introduced. These clocks had a bell on top, and when the alarm went off, a
hammer would strike the bell to produce a loud sound.
vii. Analog Mechanical Alarm Clocks (early 20th century): With advancements in
manufacturing and materials, analog mechanical alarm clocks became popular in
the early 20th century. These clocks featured a winding mechanism, a dial with
hands to indicate time, and a separate dial to set the alarm.

6
viii. Digital Alarm Clocks (late 20th century): The advent of digital technology in
the late 20th century led to the creation of digital alarm clocks. These clocks
replaced analog mechanisms with electronic components, offering more precise
timekeeping and additional features like snooze buttons and radio alarms.
ix. Smart Alarm Clocks (21st century): In the 21st century, alarm clocks have
become part of the digital and smart home landscape. Many people now use their
smartphones or smart speakers as alarm devices. These devices can be
programmed with various sounds, playlists, or even natural light simulations to
wake individuals up gradually.
The evolution of alarm clocks reflects advancements in technology, materials, and
design, catering to the changing needs and preferences of people over the centuries.

Electronics designers use 555 timers in timing circuits and the binary counter

decimal (BCD) integrated counting circuits in order to implement a timer. Though

programmable micro-controllers are more commonly used, a simpler solution for three or

more digit timers. BCDs are also valid in this application.

7
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

2.1 MATERIALS

i. 555 Timer

555 timers are integrated timing circuits which are used commonly as a source of clock

pulses to drive subsequent timer circuits. They are analogue devices which can produce

an oscillating and digital output. The IC can be configured to give an astable, period

output or a monostable, single triggered output (Analogue Electronics, 2006).

In the project circuit, the astable configuration is implemented. A square wave

output is generated with the configuration shown below in “figure 1”, mainly by the use

of an external capacitor charging and discharging. Comparator circuits internal to the

timer, compare the supply voltage and capacitor charge to produce either a HIGH or

LOW switching output. The duty cycle and frequency of the output pulses can be set

using external resistors and a capacitor (Analogue Electronics, 2006). .

8
The charge time (output HIGH) is given by:

t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1

And the discharge time (output LOW) by:

t2 = 0.693 (R2) C1

Thus the total period T is given by:

T = t1 + t2 = 0.693 (R1 + 2R2) C1

The frequency of oscillation is then:

Frequency, f = 1.44/ [(R1+R2) C]

Duty cycle = [(R1+R2)/ (R1+2R2)] x 100%

Figure 1: 555 Timer in Astable Arrangement

Very low tolerances are required for the components in order to have a very accurate

counting circuit; thus 555 timers are not used in precise real world applications. However

in order to demonstrate the timing principle, the 555 timer is a cheap alternative to other

timing devices such as piezo electric crystals. The pin configuration of a 555 timer is as

seen below in “figure 2”

9
Figure 2: 555 Timer Pin Configuration

1. PIN 1 is Ground pin: This pin is used to provide a zero voltage rail to the integrated

circuit to divide the supply potential between the three resistors.

2. PIN 2 is the Trigger pin: The voltage at non inverting end of the comparator is v in/3,

so if the trigger input is used to set the output of the Flip-Flop to high state by

applying a voltage equal to or less than vin/3 or any negative pulse, as the voltage at

the non-inverting end of the comparator is v in/3.

3. PIN 3 is the Output pin: it is the output pin of the IC.

4. PIN 4 is the Reset pin: This pin is used to reset the output of the Flip-Flop regardless

of the initial condition of the Flip-Flop.

10
5. PIN 5 is the Control voltage pin: It is used to override the inverting voltage to change

the width of the output signal irrespective of the RC timing network.

6. PIN 6 is the Threshold pin: The pin is connected to the non-inverting input of the first

comparator.

7. PIN 7 is the Discharge pin: This pin is used to discharge the timing capacitors.

8. PIN 8 is the Supply pin: This pin is used to provide the IC with the supply voltage for

proper functioning, so that different operations can be fulfilled with the 555 timer.

ii. THE 74LS90 IC

The 74LS90 is a binary counter that consists of four master/slave flip-flops which

are internally connected to provide a divide-by-two section and a divide-by-five section.

Each section has a separate clock input which initiates state changes of the counter on the

HIGH-to-LOW clock transition. A gated AND asynchronous Master Set (MS1•MS2) is

provided on the 74LS90 which overrides the clocks and the MR (Master Reset) inputs

and sets the outputs to nine.

The 74LS90 integrated circuit is basically a MOD-10 decade counter that produces

a BCD output code. The 74LS90 consists of four master-slave JK flip-flops internally

connected to provide a MOD-2 (count-to-2) counter and a MOD-5(count-to-5)

counter(Philips, BCD Up/Down Counter). The 74LS90 has one independent toggle JK

flip-flops that form an asynchronous counter driven by CLK B input. The pin

configuration of 74LS90 binary counter is as shown below in “figure 3”.

11
Figure 3: 74LS90 Binary Counter Pin Configuration.

iii. THE 74LS47 IC.

This is a BCD to 7-segment decoder/driver IC. It accepts a binary coded decimal

as input and converts it into a pattern to drive a seven segment for displaying digits 0-9.

Binary coded decimal (BCD) is an encoding in which each digit of a number is

represented by its own binary sequence (usually of four bits).

The 74LS47 IC accepts four lines of BCD (8421) input data and generates their

complements internally. The data is decoded with seven AND/OR gates to drive indicator

LEDs of the seven segment directly (Philips, BCD to 7 segment decoder). The output

corresponds to the common anode (CA) configuration of seven segment.The pin

configuration of 74LS47 BCD to segment decoder is as shown below in “figure 4”.

12
Figure 4: 74LS47 BCD to segment Decoder Pin Configuration

TABLE 1: 74LS47 Pin Description

PIN FUNCTION NAME
NO.
1 BCD Input 2 A1
2 BCD Input 3 A2
3 Display test: Active low LT
4 Ripple blanking output: RBO
Active low
5 Ripple blanking input; RBI
Active low
6 BCD Input 4 A3
7 BCD Input 1 AO
8 Ground (0V) Ground
9 Segment output: Active low E
10 Segment output: Active low D
11 Segment output: Active low C
12 Segment output: Active low B
13 Segment output: Active low A
14 Segment output: Active low G
15 Segment output: Active low F
16 Supply voltage: 5V (4.75V- Vcc
5.25V)

iv. 7 SEGMENT DISPLAY

13
 The 7-segment display consist of seven LEDs arranged in a rectangular fashion as

shown below, each of the seven LEDs is called a segment because when illuminated, the

segment forms part of a numerical digit both decimal and hexadecimal to be displayed.

An additional 8th LED is sometimes used within the same package thus allowing the

indication of a decimal point, (DP) when two or more 7-segment displays are connected

to display numbers greater than 10.

Each one of the seven LEDs in the display is given a positional segment with one of

its connection pins being brought straight out of the rectangular plastic package. This

individual LED pins are labelled from a-g representing each individual LED. There are

two types of 7-segment displays which are;

1. THE COMMON CATHODE (CC): In the CC display, all the cathode connections

of the LED segments are joined together to logic “0” or ground. The individual

segments are illuminated by application of a “HIGH”, or logic “1” signal via a

current limiting resistor to forward bias

the individual Anode terminals.

Figure 5: Common Cathode of 7 Segment Display

14
 2. THE COMMON ANODE (CA): in the CA display, all the anode connections of

the LED segments are joined together to logic “1”. The individual segments are

illuminated by applying a ground, logic “0” or LOW signal via a suitable current

limiting resistor to the cathode of the particular segment(a-g)

Figure 6; Common Anode of 7 Segment Display

15
 v. RESISTOR

Resistors are electrical devices that act to reduce current flow and at the same time

act to lower voltage level, within circuits. The relationship between the voltage applied

across a resistor and the current through it is given by V=IR. There are numerous

applications of resistors. Resistors are used to set operating current and signal levels,

provide voltage reduction, set precise gain values in precision circuit, act as shunts in

ammeters and voltage meters, behave as damping agent in oscillators act as bus and line

terminators or digital circuits and provide feedback networks for amplifiers. Resistors

may have fixed resistances or they may be dc signed to have variable resistance. They

may be dc signed to have variable resistance. They may also have resistance, their charge

with digit or heat exposure (e.g. photo resistors, thermistors).

Resistors use either a series of painted bands or written labels to specify resistance

values. A resistor usually has four bands of colors. The first and the second bands

represent the first and second digits of the resistor values respectively.

The third band represents the multiples (no of zeroes) while the fourth band is the

tolerance of the resistor. Below is the list of the colors with their corresponding values

(Wikipedia, 2016). Different types of resistor color band is shown in “figure 7” below.

Figure 7: Resistors

16
TABLE 2: Resistor Color Coding
BAND COLOUR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
BLACK 0 1
BROWN 1 10 1%
RED 2 100 2%
ORANGE 3 1K -
YELLOW 4 10K -
GREEN 5 100K 0.5%
BLUE 6 1M 0.25%
PURPLE 7 10M 0.1%
GREY 8 100M -
WHITE 9 1000M -
SILVER - 0.01% 10%
GOLD - 0.1 5%

It is important to note that two resistors may have the same resistance values by different

power ratings/wattage rating). Resistors with higher power ratings can dissipate heat

generated by a current more effectively. Replacing a high power resistor with a lower

power resistor may lead to “meltdown”.

vi. CAPACITORS.

This is a device used for storing energy in its electric field. Capacitors can either

be fixed or variable in value. All capacitors are either polarized capacitors or non-

polarized capacitors. The various types under these two main categories are electrolytic,

non-electrolytic, ceramic capacitors, polyester capacitors. Non-polarized capacitors are

always color coded. Capacitors can also be used for coupling, de coupling, as by pan

capacitors and in tuned circuits (Wikipedia, 2016). The figure of different types of

capacitors is as shown in “figure 8”.

17
Figure 8; Capacitors

Listed below are the materials and tools used for the project with their uses.

To serve as a platform to implement the circuit on

Figure 9: Vero Board

Soldering iron and lead: To solder the components on the Vero board

vii. LIST OF COMPONENTS

Other components required in the construction of the Digital Clock are listed below:

1. Resistor, 1k & 50k (variable) ohms.

2. Capacitor, 10µf,

3. 555 timer.

4. 74LS90 IC, BCD Counter (4).

18
5. 74LS47 IC, BCD segment Decoder (4).

6. 7 Segment Display (4).

The design specifications for this project were as follows:

1. Design must contain a 555 timer.

2. Have a four digit output.

3. Have the circuit count time, with means for reset.

The first step in the design of any complex circuit is a block diagram as shown in “figure

10” below identifying the basic functions which must be performed. The following block

diagram was prepared using the design specifications above as a guide:

Figure 10: Block Diagram of a Digital Clock

19
2.2 Construction Process

This circuit can be split into several discrete, individually testable blocks, as

shown in Figure above, i.e. the block diagram. In order to expedite the implementation of

the circuit, circuit blocks were built and tested individually on breadboard and integrated

with the circuit to build up to the full 4 digit implementation. The circuit was executed in

the following order:

1. 555 Timer.

2. Test of 555 timer circuit.

3. The first set of 74LS90 & 74LS47 were constructed.

4. One 7 segment display output built.

5. 555 timer, first set of 74LS90 & 74LS47 and first 7 segment output connected

together.

6. Visual test of 555 timer, first set of 74LS90 & 74LS47 and 7 segment output counting

from digit

7. 0 to 9.

8. Test of remaining 7 segment display outputs by placing them in the circuit and testing

as per

9. (6).

10. The second set of 74LS90 & 74LS47 IC’s were constructed.

11. The second set of 74LS90 & 74LS47 IC’s were given supply from the first set of IC’s

and pins
20
12. 9 & 8 were connected to pin 2 & 3 so as to clear back to zero after 0-6 count.

13. Visual test of circuit implemented in (9).

14. The third and fourth set of IC’s were arranged as above, and the four 7 segment

displays were

15. Connected together using common anode.

16. Visual test of (11)

17. Reset switch added.

18. Operation of final circuit tested visually.

19. The circuit diagram used is as seen below in “figure 11”, it was constructed using a

life wire simulation.

Figure 11: Circuit Diagram of Digital Clock

21
 CHAPTER FOUR

3.0 RESULTS

The implementation process followed a logical progression, integrating separate blocks

into the growing circuit once normal operation of existing components was established.

Starting with a full 0-9 count and testing by observing the output from the 7 segment

display enabled the group to show that the 555 timer, 74LS90, 74LS47 IC’s and 7

segment displays were all compatible before proceeding with more complex

interconnections.

The most challenging task in implementing this circuit was properly connecting the IC’s.

Troubleshooting of possible logic errors in the design of the circuitwas done during

implementation using the relevant datasheets.

The original design for the project was for 4 seven segment display timer to

display time. This was implemented using a 555 Timer in an astable configuration, a

74LS90 (BCD) counter, a 74LS47 counter and a seven segment display. As this circuit

was straightforward to implement, a decade counter timing circuit was decided as a

reasonable design to implement. The basic design above was for a timer that counted

from 0 – 9 then back to 0 again. This had to be changed in order to allow a timer to be

produced.

The code conversion section of the basic design allows the counter to count from

zero to six then back again, and the BCD’s were connected directly to their

corresponding Seven Segment Decoding chips.

22
 The 555 Timer remained the driver for the circuit with the pause switch being

removed so as to simplify that particular part of the circuit. The47kΩ resistor was

replaced with a 1kΩresistor in series with a 50kΩ variable resistor, so the frequency of

the 555 Timer could be modified to produce a 1 Hz signal.

The 555 Timer output was then connected to the clock input of the second 74LS90

(BCD2). BCD2 was configured to count from 0 – 9 then resets to 0, counting the minutes

in the timing circuit. When BCD2 resets itself it sends a pulse from pin 11 or the carry

out pin. A wire from pin 11 was then connected to the clock input of the first 74LS90

(BCD1), so when BCD2 reset itself the pulse sent through pin 11 would trigger the clock

input of BCD1.

BCD1 counts the tens of minute in the circuit, so in order to have it count properly

the timer was limited to count to six before being forced to reset on the next input pulse

from BCD2. This was achieved by connecting output pins 9 & 8 to pins 2 and 3. As the

binary representation for six is 0110, when both the second and third bit was high, this

connection allowed the reset pin of BCD1 to be triggered, making the first seven segment

display go straight from six to zero.

The final BCD, BCD4, counts the hours in the timing circuit. This was triggered using

the output from the connection between pin 8 and 3 of BCD1. As the reset of BCD4 only

triggered when it reached two, it seemed reasonable to get the clock input of BCD3 from

pin 11 of BCD4 at the same time, removing the need for any extra circuit parts.

The outputs of the BCD’s were then connected tothe 74LS47 chips. Then the 74LS47

chips were connected to the seven segment displays. As an addition to the circuit a reset

23
switch was attached to the reset pins of all of the BCD’s, when compressed the switch

sends a continuous high voltage signal to the BCD’s preventing them from counting until

the switch is off.

The Seven Segment Displays were chosen as the desired output of this circuit for their

compact packaging and ease of implementation. An LCD display was considered for an

alternate form of output but their expense and with the seven segment displays it was

easier to see the output.

Also, the 555 Timer is one of the most accurate IC timers developed. Combined with its

low cost, the 555 Timer was deemed the most appropriate timer that could be readily

attained.

The components were arranged on the bread board following the circuit diagram above.

The device worked perfectly well after arrangement.

24
Figure 12: Bread Board Implementation

The implementation was done on the Vero board and all the components were

soldered well on the Vero board. It was then tested and the expected result was achieved.

This is as shown in “figure 13 and 14” below.

Figure 13: Vero Board Implementation Figure 14: Digital Clock

3.1 TROUBLESHOOTING

During the troubleshooting phase, problems were encountered at the testing steps 5, 7

and 11 above.

Step 5. The single display occasionally skipped digits. This was due to a wiring error in

the astable section. Once the wiring error was corrected, normal operation of the

“minutes” counter was established.

Step 7. The first display did not clear at count 6, this was corrected by connecting outputs

2 and 3 of the 74LS90 to pin set 1 and 2 respectively.

25
Step 11. After the “reset” pins were connected together, the circuit no longer counted and

an output of “0000” on the 7 segment displays was observed. The reset switch had been

inadvertently connected to the 9V rail and had locked the four counters in the “reset”

state.

26
 CHAPTER FIVE
4.0 CONCLUSION
Digital electronic components were investigated and a 555 timer, a 74LS90 IC, a 74LS47

Decoder and a seven segment display were combined to form a digital timer circuit.

Different methods were analyzed to determine the best technique for creating an efficient

timer until one was chosen and the circuit was designed. The chosen circuit was verified

through live wire simulation. This design was then implemented and modified to suit the

needs of the project. Problems were analyzed and repaired where necessary until it was

concluded that the circuit had met the design criteria of the project. Once the correct

operation of the circuit was verified, a vero board implementation was designed in order

to make the circuit more concise and more accurate.

27
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 REFERENCES.

1. Analogue Electronics, 2006. Retrieved on 20/06/16 from

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogue electronics.

2. Science and Technology Encyclopedia, Electronics. Retrieved on 21/06/16 from

http://www.answers.com/topic/electronics.

3. Timer, 2006. Retrieved on 21/06/16 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timer

4. Phillips, BCD Up/Down Counter, Retrieved on 22/06/16 from

http://www.doctronics.co.uk/4510.htm.

5. Phillips, BCD to 7 segment Decoder, Retrieved on 22/06/16 from

http://www.doctronics.co.uk/4511.htm.

6. Interfacing to 7-Segment Numeric Displays, Retrieved on 23/06/16 from

http://www.thelearningpit.com/lp/doc/7seg/7seg.html.

7. Diode Logic, 2006. Retrieved on 23/06/16 from http://www.play-

hookey.com/digital/electronics/dl_gates.html.

8. Wikipedia, 2016.

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