RRB ALP EXAM

Study Material For Basic Science & Engineering

 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
What is a Computer?
An electronic device that accepts data and processes it into useful information is called a Computer.
There are two main aspects of the computer:
● Input: The data we enter into the computer is called the input. Input, basically are raw facts
for which we want the system to process and give us an outcome.
● Output: The answer that the computer provides in return of the raw data entered, is called
output.

Generations of Computer
There are a total of five Generations of Computer, with each Generation something new was
discovered to improvise the functioning and the use of the computer systems.
First Generation (Vacuum Tubes) – 1940-1956:
This Generation computers relied on Machine Language (the Language of 0s and 1s) and used
Vacuum tubes as components of memory. They were huge in size and occupied almost a room-size
area to fit in.
Given below are a few characteristic features of the 1st Generation of computer:
● The price of managing these computers was very high.
● They were huge.
● They were not capable of multitasking, and only one task could be performed at a time.
● There was no use of monitors; the output was directly given in the form of print outs.
● The electricity consumption was very high.

Examples of computers developed in this generation are ENIAC – Electronic Numeric Integrated and
Computer, UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer, EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator and EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

Second Generation (Transistors) – 1956-1963:

The first-ever transistor was invented in 1947 but could never be used in the computer until the
1950s. Given below are a few characteristic features of the 2nd Generation computers:
● The speed of the transistor decided the speed of the computer.
● It was less expensive in comparison to the 1st Generation computers.
● The electricity consumption had also reduced with the use of transistors.
● There was no change in the output as it was still received through a printout.
● From machine language, there was a change to usage assembly language in computers.
Thus, now computers could understand words.
● High-level programming languages were used.
Two significant developments during this phase include the development of FORTRAN or Formula
Translation and COBOL or Common Business Oriented Language, which was developed for business
use.
Third Generation (Integrated Circuits) – 1964-1971:
The phase when the usage of keyboards and monitors ha started for the input and output. The
transistors had been reduced in size and were placed on silicon chips. This increased the speed of
the computer.
Given below are the features of the 3rd Generation of computers:
● The Integrated circuits were used where small circuits could work as efficiently as the larger
ones.
● Multitasking could be done in the computers developed during the 3rd phase.
● Functions of the computer were based on the memory of the monitor.
A few examples from this Generation of computer are PDP 8, IBM 360, ICL 2900, etc.
Fourth Generation (Microprocessors) – 1972-2010:
The maximum developments were done during this time phase as technology has advanced many
folds. By this time, millions of transistors could be placed on the silicon circuits.
The characteristic features of this Generation are given below:
● The first microprocessor, Intel 4004 chip was discovered by Ted Hoff and was made
commercially available in 1971. This led to the introduction of personal computers.
● This Generation saw revised versions of computers being introduced in the form of laptops
and tablets.
● GUI – Graphical User Interface was developed during this phase.
● Speed, memory and storage had also improved in the computers of this Generation
The computers which were introduced during this Generation include Apple II, the first IBM
computer, STAR 1000, and many more.
Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) – 2010-till date:
The current generation of computers which have made our lives easier and more convenient is all a
part of the fifth generation of the computer.
Given below is some basic information about the 5th generation of computers:
● Artificial intelligence is being used in devices currently which has enabled millions on tasks
to be completed within seconds on a device.
● Advancement in the functioning of laptops, palmtops, etc.
● Other robotic devices have started being used to reduce human labour.
● The devices from this generation are cost-effective, faster, consume lesser electricity and are
easily portable and convenient to use

Classification of Computers
There are three major categories based on which computers can be classified. These are:

1. Based on Size
2. Based on Purpose
 3. Based on Types

The image given below gives a clear classification of the Types of Computers:

Types of Computer-Based on Types

The three types of computers along with their functions are given below:
● Analog Computer – An analog computer one that uses the continuously changeable aspects
of physical phenomena to model the problem being solved. These phenomena may be such
as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities and they are extremely complex to be used.
Such computers are mostly used for scientific and industrial applications. Examples of
Analog computers include Thermometer, Operational Amplifiers, Electric Integrators, etc.
● Digital Computer – Such computers are capable of solving problems in discrete format. It
only operates on data entered in binary language and can perform the dynamic function of
managing large amounts of data and regulating the operations of the machine, Examples of
Digital computers are Desktop, Laptop, Mobile Phones, etc.
● Hybrid Computer – Computers that exhibit features of both Analog and Digital computers
are called Hybrid Computers. The logical operations are solved by the digital aspects and the
differential equations are solved using the analog features. Few important examples of
Hybrid Computers include Space Flights, Food processing Plants, etc.

Types of Computers – Based on Size

Described below are the four types of Computers based on their sizes along with their functions:
● Micro Computers – A relatively inexpensive and small computer comprising a
microprocessor and a Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called a Microcomputer. Such
computers are made with minimal circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. Examples
include Desktop, Laptop, etc.
● Mini Computer – Developed in the mid-1960s, Mini computers are comparatively smaller
than mainframe computers. They were developed keeping in consideration human
 interaction, control instrumentation and were cost-effective. For example Smartphones,
iPads, etc.
● Mainframe Computer – Computers used by large Organisations to manage bulk data are
called Mainframe computers. Main functions of such type include managing customer
statistics, census and other heavy data in a single device. For example, the system used at
Trading companies.
● Super Computer – Computers used at Organisations dealing with Weather forecasting,
Quantum Mechanics, Climate research, etc., where high level of performance has to be
justified are called Super Computers.

Types of Computers – By Purpose

On the basis of purpose, there are just two variety of computers. Those two varieties have been
discussed in detail below:
● General Purpose – Based on General Purpose, there are these following functions which a
device is expected to perform:
o Basic Input/Output functions
o Calculations
o Data Saving on a smaller scale
o General performing activities

These may include basic calculators, laptops, desktop computers, mobile phones, etc., which can
help people with their basic necessary functions are included in the General Purpose computer
type.

● Special Purpose – When a computer is designed specifically to perform a certain function,

such type of computers is known as Special Purpose computer. These types may include:

o Thermometers to test temperature

o Generators to manage electricity
o Devices used for analysing Climate Change
o Large computers for IT Companies
o Machines used at Manufacturing Units and the list goes on and on

Important Terms Related to Computer Knowledge

Computer Virus: A computer virus is a malicious piece of code or software which affects the normal
functioning of a computer. Viruses may disrupt the system by hijacking system memory,
surreptitiously collect data or shut down the system altogether.
Antivirus software: Antivirus software is a program used to protect computers from computer
viruses such as malware, trojans and network viruses. Many prominent software companies
specialise in antivirus software. Some of the biggest software vendors who develop and market
antivirus software are McAfee, Norton, Eset and Kaspersky Labs.
Malware: Malware is a type of virus. It is defined as malicious software which corrupts computer
and mobile operations and provides unauthorized access to a private system or displays harmful
content. The information on a specific system gets copied without the user’s notice and disrupts the
normal operation. Usage of malware specific tools or antivirus helps to prevent malware. Malware
is spread through careless use of browser extensions, email attachments and storage media.
Computer worm: A computer worm is a standalone malware that spreads through computer
networks. It is a self-replicating software that infects computers connected to a network while
remaining active in the original system. It is one of the most common viruses.
Trojan horse: A trojan horse is a malicious program which infects a system by masquerading as an
innocuous program. It introduces the virus to a system. They do not replicate themselves but are
very destructive.
Authorization: Authorization is the function of specifying access rights related to information
security or computer security. In organisations, authorisation can only be controlled by a specified
user or group of users known as system administrators. An authorisation is an important aspect of
computer security and helps to maintain security and confidentiality of company data.
Authentication: When the credentials are compared to those of the database of the original file it is
termed as authentication. Authentication can be used to confirm the validity of an authorisation, or
the safety of a database etc. It helps the system to give access to legitimate users.
Hacker: A hacker is a person who has complete knowledge about a specific area of computer
security and uses it to gain access to the systems. Hackers can be classified as black hat and white
hat hackers. White hat hackers use their knowledge to expose flaws in computer security practices
and suggest more effective solutions to security issues. Black hat hackers use their knowledge to
harm users for monetary or other gains.
Phishing: The practice of sending fake emails or trying to get personal information like name,
password or money at times is known as phishing. Phishing is conducted by posing as a legitimate
user of a system and collecting data through electronic communication.
Spoofing attack: When a person or program impersonates the identity of another by falsifying
important data, thereby gaining an unfair and illegitimate advantage is called spoofing. There are
various spoofing attacks that the fraudulent party can use for their purpose.

Computer Input and Output Devices

Input Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which helps us enter data into a computer
is called an input device. For example, keyboard, mouse, etc.
Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered
input, once it is processed (i.e., converts data from machine language to a human-understandable
language), is called an output device. For example, printer, monitor, etc.

List of Input Devices

1. Keyboard

● A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or
number commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be performed
 ● It has a modified version of typewriter keys
● The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use keyboards to
give commands to the computer

2. Mouse

● It is also known as a pointing device

● Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and open up
various files and programs
● A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in
selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively
● In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps in the
movement of the mouse pointer

3. Joy Stick

● It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can
be moved and controlled
● Mostly used to control the movement in video games
● Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane,
wheelchairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well

4. Light Pen

● It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen
● It is light-sensitive
● Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube

5. Microphone

● Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form

● It converts sound into an electrical signal
● To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with
an amplifier

6. Scanner

● This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
● When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and
displays it on the computer screen

7. Barcode Reader

● It is a kind of an optical scanner

● It can read bar codes
 ● A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are displayed on
the screen

List of Output Devices

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their
function is and how they can be used.

1. Monitor

● The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor.
● When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on
the monitor.
● Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years.

2. Printer

● A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called
a printer.
● For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a print out
of it, which is in the form of paper and is later published.
● Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve different
purposes.

3. Speakers

● A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a

computer to do is called a speaker.
● Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be
attached separately.
● With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless and can
be connected using BlueTooth or other applications.

4. Projector

● An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is
called a projector.
● Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display
of the videos or lighting.
● If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is
the same as the one displayed on the computer screen.

5. Headphones

● They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound.
 ● Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones, the sound
is only audible to the person using them.
● Also known as earphones or headset

Basic Components of Computer

By definition, components of a computer system are the primary elements which make the
functioning of an electronic device smooth and faster. There are five basic components which
include:

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Memory Unit
4. Control Unit
5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit

Input Unit
● A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These commands can
be given using the input unit or the input devices.
 ● For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the computer
processes the entered data and then displays the output of the same of the screen.
● The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter the
information using an input device, the processing units convert it into computer
understandable languages and then the final output is received by a human-understandable
language.

Output Unit
● When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts back for the action performed
and gives us a result. This result is called output. There are various output devices connected
to the computer. The most basic of which is a monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard
or click using a mouse, is all displayed on the monitor.
● Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done within the
mechanism of a device.
● For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin, amount to be
withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash dispenser releases is our outcome.
In this case, the cash dispenser acts as an output unit.

Memory Unit
● When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the entered information
immediately gets saved in the memory unit of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Because of
the presence of some existing programming, the Memory Unit transmits the data further to
the other parts of the CPU.
● Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it is saved in the
memory unit before giving the output to the user.

Control Unit
● This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer device. It is one
of the most essential components of the computer system.
● The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on for processing and
once that is done, receives the output and presents it to the user. It can be said to the centre
of all processing actions taking place inside a computer device.
● Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals to execute the
data and then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control Unit.

Arithmetic & Logical Unit

● As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations are
performed in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.
● It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making actions. The ALU
comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and other
numerical based calculations can be performed.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The Central Processing Unit is the core of any computer devices. It comprises of three major
components of the computer which have been discussed above:
● Memory Unit
● Control Unit
● Arithmetic and Logical Unit

All these three units are elements of CPU and together help in the efficient working and processing
of data. It is also known as the “Brain of Computer” and no action can be conducted by a device
without the execution and permission of the Central Processing Unit.

The device is a close-knit circuit comparison microprocessor which helps in fetching the data and
proving suitable results to the user. Thus, CPU is the main processing unit of the computer.

Computer Hardware & Software

What is Computer Hardware?
Computer hardware is the physical components of a computer that we can touch and feel. These
are machinery or primary electronic devices that are used to build up the computer or data
processing system. Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can
use to control a computer’s operation, input and output.
Computer hardware examples:
Few examples of computer hardware are –
● Motherboard – it is the circuit board that contains IC sockets and slots.
● Central Processing Unit (CPU) – it is the heart of the computer
● Peripheral of CPU such as Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, Speaker, UPS etc.
What is Computer Software?
Computer Software is a programming code executed on a computer processor. It is a set of
programs that can do particular work of the user. The software simply is a collection of
documentation, instructions, and procedures that are capable of performing different tasks on a
computer system.
The computer software is divided into two major parts:
● System Softwares – System software operates directly on hardware devices of the
computer. It provides a platform to run an application and helps to run the hardware of the
computer and the system itself. Operating systems, diagnostic tools, device drivers are some
included in system software. These are mostly pre-installed on computers. Examples are
Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
● Application Softwares – Designed for user-benefit to complete different tasks. These are
either pre-installed in the computers or can be installed as per the need. It includes word
 processing, Language processors, web browsing, translators, editors and almost any other
task for which we install the software. Examples are Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.
Software is generally written or created in a high-level programming language. The language that is
readable by people. These instructions in high-level languages are then converted into “machine
language” instructions, represented in the form of binary code before the hardware can “run the
code”. When we install any software, it is generally already in this machine language or binary form.

Computer Virus and its Types

A computer virus is a program which can harm our device and files and infect them for no further
use. When a virus program is executed, it replicates itself by modifying other computer programs
and instead enters its own coding. This code infects a file or program and if it spreads massively, it
may ultimately result in crashing of the device.
Across the world, Computer viruses are a great issue of concern as they can cause billions of dollars’
worth harm to the economy each year.
Since the computer virus only hits the programming of the device, it is not visible. But there are
certain indications which can help you analyse that a device is virus-hit. Given below are such signs
which may help you identify computer viruses:

● Speed of the System – In case a virus is completely executed into your device, the time
taken to open applications may become longer and the entire system processing may start
working slowly
● Pop-up Windows – One may start getting too many pop up windows on their screen which
may be virus affected and harm the device even more
● Self Execution of Programs – Files or applications may start opening in the background of
the system by themselves and you may not even know about them
● Log out from Accounts – In case of a virus attack, the probability of accounts getting hacked
increase and password protected sites may also get hacked and you might get logged out
from all of them
● Crashing of the Device – In most cases, if the virus spreads in maximum files and programs,
there are chances that the entire device may crash and stop working

Types of Computer Virus

● Boot Sector Virus – It is a type of virus that infects the boot sector of floppy disks or the
Master Boot Record (MBR) of hard disks. The Boot sector comprises all the files which are
required to start the Operating system of the computer. The virus either overwrites the
existing program or copies itself to another part of the disk.
● Direct Action Virus – When a virus attaches itself directly to a .exe or .com file and enters
the device while its execution is called a Direct Action Virus. If it gets installed in the
memory, it keeps itself hidden. It is also known as Non-Resident Virus.
● Resident Virus – A virus which saves itself in the memory of the computer and then infects
other files and programs when its originating program is no longer working. This virus can
 easily infect other files because it is hidden in the memory and is hard to be removed from
the system.
● Multipartite Virus – A virus which can attack both, the boot sector and the executable files
of an already infected computer is called a multipartite virus. If a multipartite virus attacks
your system, you are at risk of cyber threat.
● Overwrite Virus – One of the most harmful viruses, the overwrite virus can completely
remove the existing program and replace it with the malicious code by overwriting it.
Gradually it can completely replace the host’s programming code with the harmful code.
● Polymorphic Virus – Spread through spam and infected websites, the polymorphic virus are
file infectors which are complex and are tough to detect. They create a modified or morphed
version of the existing program and infect the system and retain the original code.
● File Infector Virus – As the name suggests, it first infects a single file and then later spreads
itself to other executable files and programs. The main source of this virus are games and
word processors.
● Spacefiller Virus – It is a rare type of virus which fills in the empty spaces of a file with
viruses. It is known as cavity virus. It will neither affect the size of the file nor can be
detected easily.
● Macro Virus – A virus written in the same macro language as used in the software program
and infects the computer if a word processor file is opened. Mainly the source of such
viruses is via emails.

What is an Anti-Virus?
An anti-virus is a software which comprises programs or set of programs which can detect and
remove all the harmful and malicious software from your device. This anti-virus software is
designed in a manner that they can search through the files in a computer and determine the files
which are heavy or mildly infected by a virus.
Given below is a list of few of the major antivirus software which is most commonly used:

● Norton Antivirus
● F-Secure Antivirus
● Kaspersky Antivirus
● AVAST Antivirus
● Comodo Antivirus
● McAfee Antivirus

Internet - Description, History & Uses

History and Evolution of the Internet

The Internet completely revolutionised communication and technology across the Globe. Initially,
computerised devices were only used for large industries but later its usage increased massively.
It is also mandatory for people to know that it is not possible for a single person to develop
something as broad and wide as the Internet all by himself/herself. It was a combined effort of
multiple researchers and programmers that the Internet was discovered.
Given below are a few important points which played an extremely important role in the
development of the Internet and making it one of the most widely used resources across the world.

● The first development was the introduction of host-to-host network interactions. This was
first observed in ARPANET in 1969. It was developed by Advanced Research Projects Agency
(APRA) of the Department of Defence, U.S. It was one of the first general usage of computer
networks.
● Next step was commercialising the usage and making the transistors and transmitters fit in
smaller devices for convenient Internet usage for the general public. This was introduced in
the 1970s
● Moving forward, satellites and wireless communication was the main target. Defence
Advanced Research Projects Agency (formerly ARPA), supported satellite-based radio
packets for mobile usage of networks
● The next was the development of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This enabled different
machines and networks across the world to assemble data packets. It was in the 1980s that
the TCP/IP approach was adapted by researchers and technologists, following the footsteps
of the U.S. Department of Defence
● With the introduction of personal computers, the demand for commercial Internet usage
increased. This was the time when Ethernet and other Local Area Networks cam in the
foreground
● In 1993, the web browser was introduced, which followed the point-and-click approach and
is now a widely used operation for Internet users
● The late 1990s was the time when thousands of Internet Service Providers has taken up the
market and most of them were from the U.S.
● And then the 21st century brought in an amalgamation of technology and wireless Internet
accessibility for its users. Wherein, wireless broadband services came in as a boon for
Internet users

Ways To Connect To Internet

The different ways in which one can connect to the Internet are discussed below in brief:

● Dial-Up – In such connections, users are required to link their phone line to a computer to
access the Internet. Under this connection, the user cannot make or receive phone calls
through tier home phone service.
● Broadband – Provided either through cable or phone companies, Broadband is a high-speed
internet connection which is widely used today.
● Wireless Connection – Wi-fi and Mobile service providers fall under this category. Internet
connectivity is made via radio waves and the Internet can be connected anywhere,
irrespective of the location. Given below are a few examples of wireless connection:
o Wi-fi – Wireless Fidelity or wi-fi allows high-speed internet connectivity without the
use of wires.
 o Mobile Phones – All smartphones are now equipped with an option for Internet
connectivity which can be availed using Internet vouchers and packs. No external
connection or wire is required for these.
o Satellite – Where broadband connections are unavailable, satellites are used for
wireless Internet connectivity.
o Integrated Services Digital Network – ISDN allows users to sent audio or video data
using telephone lines.

Internet Connection Protocols

Protocols are a set of rules that help in governing the way in which any particular body or
technology works. Internet Connection Protocols can be divided into three major types:

● TCP/IP Network Model – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are
the most widely used protocols for connecting networks. It divides any message into a series
of packets which are sent from source to destination
● File Transfer Protocol – Program files, multimedia files, text files, documents, etc. can be
transferred from one device to another, using FTP
● Hypertext Transfer Protocol – Used for transferring a hypertext from one device to two or
more devices. HTML tags are used for creating links and these links may be in the form of
text or images

Pros and Cons of Using the Internet

Intentionally or unintentionally, Internet usage is a part in the day to day lives of every individual.
The Internet has made lives easy and comfortable, but at the same time made human being
dependable for the smallest or biggest of information. Discussed below are the uses of the internet,
along with a few cons that it brings along.
Pros of Internet

● Easy Access to Information – Information on anything and everything are available online.
The Internet makes it convenient to learn about new things at any point in time and get
details on various subjects, irrespective of time and place
● Platform for Online Education – With the advanced technology, even students and adults
wish to learn new things and gaining knowledge at various online portals has become more
accessible
● Job Hunting – Employers can look for employees on the internet and the job seekers can
apply online for jobs using the Internet
● Platform to become an Entrepreneur – Today, thousands of people have started their own
websites and getting good business and users/customers by making their own websites and
selling products or services. This has become accessible due to Internet connectivity
● Visual and Graphical Representation of Things – Various researches have shown that a
person tends to get more engaged with a graphical representation of things. Internet has
made this facility also convenient for both user and creator
● Reduced the parameter of Distance – Social media has reduced the distance between
people as communication has become much easier because of Internet connection
With the Internet being an extremely essential part of daily life, it is important that a person is well
aware of the disadvantages of the Internet and its excess usage.
Cons of Internet

● Dependency – The dependency of people for looking things and information online has
increased massively since the introduction of Internet and its easy access
● Cyber Crime – People do not just use internet for learning purposes, cybercrime has also
been at a distinctive high because of effortless availability of resources
● Distraction – People can easily find online games, interesting information, etc. online which
may be a cause of distraction for may
● Bullying and Trolls – Online platforms are being used for unethical practises like bullying
people and trolling them

Computer Networks

What is a Computer Network?

A group of computers which are connected to each other and follow similar usage protocols for the
purpose of sharing information and having communications provided by the networking nodes is
called a Computer Network.
A network may be small where it may include just one system or maybe as large as what one may
want. The nodes may further be classified into various types. These include:
● Personal Computers
● Servers
● Networking Hardware
● General Hosts
Networking can be classified into three types:

1. Types of Computer Networks

2. Topology
3. Interpreters

Types of Computer Networks

There are five main types of Computer Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

● Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office.

● It is inexpensive.
● It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology.
● Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or cables acting as nodes.
● Transfer of data is fast and is highly score.
2. PAN (Personal Area Network)
● The smallest computer network.
● Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red enables devices.
● It has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres.
● It covers an area of upto 30 feet.
● Personal devices belonging to a single person can be connected to each other using PAN.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● A network that can be connected within a city, for example, cable TV Connection.
● It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI.
● It has a higher range.
● This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various Organisations.
4. WAN (Wide Area Network)
● A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people.
● Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN.
● Internet is the biggest WAN in the world.
● Mostly used by Government Organisations to manage data and information.
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
● A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private network.
● There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using the Internet as a
medium for transporting data.
● These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure only authorised
users can access.

Network Topologies
Given below are the eight types of Network Topologies:

● Point to Point Topology – Point to Point topology is the simplest topology that connects two
nodes directly together with a common link.
● Bus Topology – A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all nodes are
connected and the nodes connect only to the bus.
● Mesh Topology – This type of topology contains at least two nodes with two or more paths
between them.
● Ring Topology – In this topology every node has exactly two branches connected to it. The
ring is broken and cannot work if one of the nodes on the ring fails.
● Star Topology – In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected to a central
node, which rebroadcasts all the transmissions received from any peripheral node to all
peripheral nodes on the network, including the originating node.
● Tree Topology – In this type of topology nodes are connected in the form of a tree. The
function of the central node in this topology may be distributed.
● Line Topology – in this topology all the nodes are connected in a straight line.
● Hybrid Topology – When two more types of topologies combine together, they form a
Hybrid topology.
Network Devices
Discussed below are a few important network devices from the exam point of view:

● Network Repeater – Used to generate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals.

● Network Hub – It is a small network device. It joins multiple computers together to form a
single network segment. On this segment, all computers can interact with each other.
● Network Switch – It is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers together
with a single LAN.
● Network Router – This device interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to copy
packages from one network to another. It provides connectivity inside enterprises, between
Enterprises and the Internet and within an ISP.
● Network Bridge – It reads the outermost section of the data packet to tell where the
message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments.
● Modem – This device converts digital signals into analogue signals. It is always placed
between a telephone and a computer system.

Operating System
An Operating System is the interface between the computer hardware and the end-user. Processing
of data, running applications, file management and handling the memory is all managed by the
computer OS. Windows, Mac, Android etc. Are examples of Operating systems which are generally
used nowadays.
All modern computing devices including Laptops, Tablet, mobile phones, etc. comprise an Operating
System which helps in the smooth working of the device.

History of the Operating System

It took years to evolve the Operating Systems and make them as modernised and advanced as they
are today. Given below are the details about the evolution and history of Operating systems.

● Initially, the computers made did not have an Operating system and to run each program a
different code was used. This had made the processing of data more complex and time
taking
● In 1956, the first operating systems were developed by General Motors to run a single IBM
computer
● It was in the 1960s that IBM had started installing OS in the devices they launched
● The first version of the UNIX operating system was launched in the 1960s and was written in
the programming language C
● Later on, Microsoft came up with their OS on the request of IBM
● Today, all major computer devices have an operating system, each performing the same
functions but with slightly different features
Types of Operating System
1. Batch Operating System
● There is no direct communication between the computer and the OS.
● There is an intermediate, the Operator, which needs to distribute the work into batches and
sort similar jobs.
● Multiple users can use it.
● Can easily manager a large amount of work.

2. Real-Time Operating System

● It has a data processing system.

● The processing time is very small between the user’s command and the output.
● Used in fields where the response needs to be quick and rapid.

3. Time-Sharing Operating System

● Multiple people at various terminals can use a program at the same time.
● The main motive is to minimize the response time.

4. Distributed Operating System

● When two or more systems are connected to each other and one can open files which are
not present in their system but in other devices connected in the network.
● Its usage has now increased over the years.
● They use multiple central processors to serve real-time applications.
● Failure of one system does not affect the other systems connected in the network.

5. Embedded Operating System

● These special Operating systems are built into larger systems.

● They generally are limited to single specific functions like an ATM.

6. Network Operating System

● They have one main server which is connected to other client servers.
● All the management of files, processing of data, access to sharing files, etc. are performed
over this small network.
● It is also a secure operating system for working with multiple users.

7. Mobile Operating System

● With the advancement in the field of technology, smartphones now are released with an
Operating system.
● They are designed in a manner that they can help a small device work efficiently
Functions of Operating System

● It helps with memory management. It keeps a track of the files being saved in the Main
memory and the primary memory of the computer device
● Whenever a computer is turned on, the Operating system automatically starts to work. Thus,
the booting and rebooting process of a computer device is also an important function of the
OS
● It provides a user interface
● Managing of basic peripheral devices is done by the operating system
● Using the password protection option of an operating system, the data in the device can be
kept secure
● It coordinates with the software and the user
● Easy navigation and organisation of files and programs are managed by the OS
● Any kind of program which needs to be run through the system is done by the operating
system
● If any kind of error or bug is found during the program is detected using the operating
system

List of Common Operating Systems

Name of the OS Release Date
Android 2008
iOS 2007
Windows 1985
Mac OS 2001
MS-DOS 1981
Chrome OS 2011
Windows Phone 2010
Blackberry OS 1999
Firefox OS 2013
UNIX 1969

Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office is a software which was developed by Microsoft in 1988. This Office suite
comprises various applications which form the core of computer usage in today’s world.

MS Office Applications & its Functions

Currently, MS Office 2016 version is being used across the world and all its applications are widely
used for personal and professional purposes.
Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their functions.
1. MS Word

● First released on October 25, 1983.

● Extension for Doc files is “.doc”
● It is useful in creating text documents.
● Templates can be created for Professional use with the help of MS Word.
● Work Art, colours, images, animations can be added along with the text in the same file
which is downloadable in the form of a document.
● Authors can use for writing/ editing their work.

2. MS Excel

● Majorly used for making spreadsheets.

● A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows and columns which is easy to manage
and can be used as a replacement for paper.
● It is a data processing application.
● Large data can easily be managed and saved in tabular format using MS Excel.
● Calculations can be done based on the large amount of data entered into the cells of a
spreadsheet within seconds.
● File extension, when saved in the computer, is “.xls”

3. MS PowerPoint

● It was released on April 20, 1987.

● Used to create audiovisual presentations.
● Each presentation is made up of various slides displaying data/ information.
● Each slide may contain audio, video, graphics, text, bullet numbering, tables etc.
● The extension for PowerPoint presentations is “.ppt”
● Used majorly for professional usage.
● Using PowerPoint, presentations can be made more interactive.
4. MS Access

● It was released on November 13, 1992.

● It is Database Management Software (DBMS).
● Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on MS Access.
● Import and export of data into other formats can be done.
● The file extension is “.accdb”

5. MS Outlook
 ● It was released on January 16, 1997.
● It is a personal information management system.
● It can be used both as a single-user application or multi-user software.
● Its functions also include task managing, calendaring, contact managing, journal logging and
web browsing.
● It is the email client of the Office Suite.
● The file extension for an Outlook file is “.pst”

6. MS OneNote

● It was released on November 19, 2003.

● It is a note-taking application.
● When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite only. Later, the developers made it free,
standalone and easily available at play store for android devices.
● The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
● The extension for OneNote files is “.one”
● It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-user application.

Microsoft Office Versions

Version name Release Date/ Year
Microsoft Office for Windows October 1990
Microsoft Office 3.0 August 30, 1992
Microsoft Office 4.x 1994
Microsoft Office 1995 August 24, 1995
Microsoft Office 1997 1997
Microsoft Office 2000 June 7, 1997
Microsoft Office XP May 31, 2001
Microsoft Office 2003 October 21, 2003
Microsoft Office 2007 January 30, 2007
Microsoft Office 2010 June 15, 2010
Microsoft Office 2013 January 30, 2012
Microsoft Office 2016 September 22, 2015

Important Computer Abbreviations

Computer
S. No. Full Form
Abbreviation
1 AAC Advanced Audio Coding
2 ABR Average Bit Rate
3 ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
4 AGP Advanced Graphics Port
5 AI Artificial Intelligence
6 AIM AOL Instant Messenger
7 ALGOL Algorithmic Language
8 ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
9 AOL America Online
10 AMD Advanced Micro Devices
11 API Application Program Interface
12 APT Automatically Programmed Tooling
13 ARP Address Resolution Protocol
14 ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
15 ARQ Automatic Repeat Request
16 AS Autonomous System
17 ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
18 ASP Active Server Pages
19 ASPI Advanced SCSI Programming Interface
20 ATA Advanced Technology Attachment
21 ATDT Attention Dial Tone
22 AUI Attachment Unit Interface
23 AUTOEXEC Autoexec Automatic Execution file
24 AVI Audio Video Interleave
25 BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
26 BCC Blind Carbon Copy
27 BCD Binary Coded Decimal
28 BCR Bar Code Reader
29 BDSL Broadband DSL
30 BEDO Burst Extended Data Out (RAM)
31 BGP Border Gateway Protocol
32 BHTML Broadcast Hyper Text Markup Language
33 BIOS Basic Input Output System
34 BIPS Billion Instruction Per Second
35 BIU Bus Interface Unit
36 BMP Bitmap
37 BRD Blu-Ray Disc
38 CC Carbon Copy
39 CD Compact Disk
40 CD-R Compact Disk – Recordable
41 CDROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory
42 CDRW Compact Disk Rewritable
43 CD-WO Compact Disk – Write Once
44 CD-XA Compact Disk – Extended Architecture
45 CGI-BIN Common Gateway Interface – Binary (programming for Web forms)
46 CIS CompuServe Information Service
47 CISC Complex Instructions Set Computers
48 CMD Command
49 CMYK Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black (color model)
50 CNM Circulatory Network Mode
51 COAX Coaxial Cable (for Ethernet and similar networks)
52 COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
Commonly Operated Machine Particularly Used for
53 COMPUTER
Trade/Technology, Education, and Research.
54 CPI Clock / Cycle Per Instruction
55 CPU Central Processing Unit
56 CROM Computerized Range of Motion
57 CRT Cathode Ray Tube (standard type computer monitor display
58 CSLIP Compressed Serial Line Interface Protocol (Internet)
59 CSS Cascading Style Sheets
60 CTRL Control (computer keyboard key)
61 CUI Character User Interface
62 DAC Data Acquisition and Control
63 DAT Digital Audio Tape
64 dB Decibel
65 DBMS Data Base Management System
66 DDL Data Definition Language
67 DHTML Dynamics Hyper Text Markup Language
68 DML Data Manipulation Language
69 DNS Domain Name System
70 DOC Data Optimizing Computer
71 Doc Document
72 DOS Disk Operating System
73 DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
74 DVD Digital Video/Versatile Disc
75 DVDR Digital Versatile Disk Recordable
76 DVDRW Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable
77 DCE Data Communications Equipment
78 DVI Digital Visual Interface
79 DVR Digital Video Recorder
80 E-Commerce Electronic Commerce
81 EDC Electronic Digital Computer
82 EDI Electronic Data Interchange
83 EDP Electronic Data Processing
84 EEPROM Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
85 EFS Encrypted File System
86 EIDE Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics
87 E-Mail Electronic Mail
88 EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
89 EROM Erasable Read Only Memory
90 FDD Floppy Disk Drive
91 GB Giga Byte
92 GDI Graphical Device Interface
93 GUI Graphical User Interface
94 HD Hard Disk
95 HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
96 HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
97 I/O Input/Output (serial and parallel ports)
98 IC Integrated Circuit
99 IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
100 INTEL Integrated Electronics
101 IOP Input Output Processor
102 IP Internet Protocol
103 ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
104 ISP Internet Service Provider
105 IVR Interactive Voice Response
106 KB KILOBYTE
107 Kbps Kilobits/Kilobytes Per Second
108 LAN Local Area Network
109 LED Light Emitting Diode
110 LLL Low Level Language
111 LPT Line Printer
112 MAC Media Access Control
113 MAN Metropolitan Area Network
114 MB Motherboard/ Megabyte
115 MBASIC Microsoft BASIC (Microsoft)
116 MBPS Megabytes Per Second
117 Mbps Megabits Per Second
118 MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
119 MMX Multimedia Extensions
120 MODEM Modulator Demodulator
121 MSCDEX Microsoft Compact Disc Extension
122 MS-DOS Microsoft – Disk Operating System
123 NAT Network Address Translation
124 NTP Network Time Protocol
125 OCR Optical Character Reader
126 OMR Optical Mark Reader
127 OOP Object Oriented Programming
128 OS Operating System
129 P2P Point to Point Protocol
130 PAN Personal Area Network
131 PC Personal Computer
132 PCB Printer Circuit Board
133 PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect
134 PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
135 PIXEL Picture Element
136 PNG Portable Network Graphics
137 PPP Point to Point Protocol
138 PRN Printer
139 PROM Programmable Read Only Memory
140 RAM Random Access Memory
141 RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
142 RDBMS Relational Data Base Management System
143 RIP Routing Information Protocol
144 RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer
145 ROM Read Only Memory
146 SAM Software Asset Management
147 SAN Storage Area Network
148 SCSI Small Computer System Interface
149 SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
150 SFTP Secure File Transfer Protocol
151 SGML Standard Generalized Markup Language
152 SGRAM Synchronous Graphics RAM
153 SIP Session Initiation Protocol
154 SIU Serial Interface Unit
 155 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
156 SNAP Sub Network Access Protocol
157 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
158 SRAM Static Random Access Memory
159 SYSOP System Operator
160 TCP Transmission Control Protocol
161 UI User Interface
162 URL Uniform Resource Locator
163 USB Universal Serial Bus
164 VCD Video Compact Disk
165 VDU Visual Display Unit
166 VIRUS Vital Information Resource Under Siege
167 VRAM Video Random Access Memory
169 VxD Virtual Extended Driver
170 WAN Wide Area Network
171 WAP Wireless Application Protocol
172 WBMP Wireless Bitmap Image
173 WIFI Wireless fidelity
174 WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
175 WML Wireless Markup Language
176 WWW World Wide Web
178 XGA Extended Graphics Array
179 XHTML Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language
180 XMF Extensible Music File
181 XML Extensible Markup Language
182 XMS Extended Memory Specification
183 FORTRAN Formula Translation

Important Computer Shortcut Keys

S.No. Shortcut Keys Function
1 Alt+F Displays the File menu options
2 Alt+E Opens the Edit options
3 Alt+Tab Switch between open programs
4 F1 Used by every Windows program for Help
5 F2 To Rename a selected file
6 F5 Refresh the page or current window
7 Ctrl+D To Bookmarks the current page (for most Browsers)
 Create a new or blank document or open a new tab in the Internet
8 Ctrl+N
Browser
9 Ctrl+O To Open a file
10 Ctrl+A Select the entire text at once
11 Ctrl+B Change the text to Bold
12 Ctrl+I Change the Text to Italics
13 Ctrl+U Underline the selected text
14 Ctrl+S Save the file or document you are working on
15 Ctrl+X Cut selected part of the text or image
16 Shift+Del Remove the selected items
17 Ctrl+C To copy the text or image
18 Ctrl+V To Paste
19 Ctrl+Y Redo last action
20 Ctrl+Z Undo last action
21 Ctrl+K Insert hyperlink for selected text.
22 Ctrl+P To print the document
23 Home Moves the beginning of the current line
24 Ctrl+Home Moves to the beginning of the document
25 End Moves to the end of the line
27 Ctrl+End Moves to the end of the document
28 Ctrl+Left arrow Moves one word to the left at a time.
29 Ctrl+Right arrow Moves one word to the right at a time.
30 Alt+F4 To close the program currently active
31 Alt+Enter Open the properties for the selected item
Ctrl + Shift + Create a non-breaking space
32
Spacebar
33 Ctrl + Shift+ < Decrease font size one value
34 Ctrl + Shift + > Increase the font size one value
35 Ctrl + [ Increase the font size by 1 point
36 Ctrl + ] Decrease the font size by 1 point
37 Ctrl + Spacebar Remove paragraph or character formatting
38 Ctrl + Alt + V Paste special
39 Ctrl + Shift + V Paste formatting only
40 Ctrl+F10 Maximise the document window
41 Ctrl + Shift + T Enter the current time
42 Ctrl + ; Enter the current date
43 Shift + F3 Open the Excel formula window
44 Shift + F5 Bring up search box.
45 Ctrl + F9 Minimise current workbook
46 Ctrl + F10 Maximise currently selected workbook
47 Ctrl + F6 Switch between open workbooks/window
48 Ctrl + Page Down Move between Excel worksheets in the same Excel document
49 Ctrl + Tab Move between two or more open Excel files
50 Ctrl + Page Up Move between Excel worksheet in the same Excel document
51 Alt + = Create a formula to sum all of the cells
52 Ctrl + ’ Insert the value of the above cell into cell currently selected.
53 Ctrl + Arrow key Move to next section to text
54 Ctrl + Space Select entire column
55 Shift + Space Select entire row
56 Ctrl+L To left-align the selected text
57 Ctrl+R To right-align the selected text
58 Ctrl+J To justify the selected text
59 Ctrl+E To centre align the text
60 Ctrl+Del To delete the word to the right
61 Shift+Del To permanently delete a file