8 Major communication models

There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories:

1. Linear models of communication — They only look at one-way communication.

The most prominent linear models of communication are:
1. Aristotle’s communication model,
2. Lasswell’s communication model,
3. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model.
2. Interactive models of communication — They analyze two-way communication.
These are the following:
1. The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and
2. The Westley and Maclean communication model.
3. Transactional models of communication — They illustrate two-way
communication where the message gets more complex as the communication
event progresses. These include:
1. Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and
2. Dance’s Helical communication model.

 Linear models of communication

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing, sales,
and PR, in communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication?

Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in one
direction.

The main elements in these models are:

 The channel,

 The sender, and

 The receiver.

Some linear models of communication also mention noise as one of the factors that
have a role in the communication process. Noise acts as the added (background)
element that usually distracts from the original message.

Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a channel.

The channel, as the medium, changes the message into speech, writing, or animation.

The message then finally reaches the receiver, who decodes it.

We already mentioned the 3 most prominent linear models of communication, and now
it is time to analyze each one of them in more detail.

1. Aristotle’s model of communication

The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was
designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator.

What is Aristotle’s model of communication?

Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public speaker,
professor, etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).

The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is
passive. This makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in public
speaking, seminars, and lectures.

What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model?

Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model:

1. Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and
power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
2. Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger,
sadness, happiness, etc.)
3. Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting — it
needs to follow the rules of logic.

Aristotle also suggested that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to analyze

the best way to communicate:

 Speaker,

 Speech,

 Occasion,

 Target audience, and

 Effect.

Aristotle’s communication model example

Picture this:

Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students.

She delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students
mesmerized.

The professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience — her students — are
merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them
act accordingly.

So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is the speaker, and her lecture on disorders
is the act of speech.

The occasion in question is a university lecture, while the students are her target
audience.

The effect of her speech is the students gaining knowledge on this subject matter.

One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to the
feedback in communication because the audience is passive.
2. Lasswell’s model of communication
The next linear model on our list is Lasswell’s Model of mass communication.

What is Lasswell’s model of communication?

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission of a

message with the effect as the result.

The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the
message that is caused by the elements of communication.

If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.

What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model?

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:

1. Who created the message?

2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

 Communicator,

 Message,

 Medium,

 Audience/Receiver, and

 Effect.

Lasswell’s communication model example

Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase
salesman, Mr. Sanders.

He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that millions of viewers are
watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a remarkable
impression.

By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his product as the best on the
market, and consequently increasing sales revenue.

So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is the communicator.

The message he is conveying is the promotion of his brand of suitcases as the best.

The medium he uses is television.

His audience consists of evening TV viewers in the US.

The effect he is achieving by doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing
sales revenue.
3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication
Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their
work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to
discover which channels are most effective for communicating.

So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors, they
claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well.

And, they were right.

What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication?

The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical

communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way process
that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.

What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model?

As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the main

components of this model are:

 Sender,

 Encoder,

 Channel,

 Decoder, and

 Receiver.

The Shannon-Weaver communication model example

Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new
marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month.

She wants a detailed study of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week.

Unfortunately, while she was speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she
forgot to tell Julian about the most important issue.

At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some mistakes, which
had to be corrected later on.

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example.

Paula is the sender, her mouth being the encoder.

The meeting she held was the channel.

Julian’s ears and brain were decoders, and Julian was the receiver.

Can you guess Peter’s role?

Yes, he was the noise.

The trouble in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for
clarification after Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have
been more effective, and there would have been no mistakes.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his 1960 book The
Process of Communication.

This communication model is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of the
key elements in each step.

What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of communication

that suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4 basic steps or key
elements.

What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model?

As shown in Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram below, these steps are the
following:

1. Source,
2. Message,
3. Channel, and
4. Receiver.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model example

Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of
communication.

In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they convey the
message to the audience.

The news is the message, the television is the channel, and the audience are the
receivers of the message.

 Interactive models of communication

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication such as
telephone conversations, letters, etc.

What is an interactive model of communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-way

communication with feedback.

However, feedback within interactive communication models is not simultaneous, but

rather slow and indirect.

What are the main elements of interactive communication models?

The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive communication model
diagram, include the following:

 Sender,

 Message,

 Receiver,

 Feedback, and

 Field of experience.

You probably noticed the new, previously not seen element — field of experience.

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal
history.

All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the
receiver interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into
communication situations.

We have already mentioned the most noteworthy interactive models of communication.

Now it is time for us to consider them in greater detail.

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications, Denis
Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break
with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”

What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication?

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages

go in two directions between encoding and decoding.

As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication,

but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.

Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no difference

between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the
messages. The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that
moment.

Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication model shows that information is of

no use until it is put into words and conveyed to other people.

What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according
to this model?

The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of

communication:

1. Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication process are

changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
 3. The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.
4. This model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:

 Encoding,

 Decoding, and

 Interpreting.

The Osgood-Schramm communication model example

Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call
you, and you start updating each other about what happened during the time you have
not seen each other.

In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and
your communication is synchronous. You are both interpreting each other’s messages.

6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication

The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean model
of communication.

This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

What is the Westley and Maclean communication model?

The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication
process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture,
and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.

The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts with
environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker
lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.

Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.

What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model?

This model consists of 9 crucial components:

1. Environment (X),
2. Sensory experience (X¹),
3. Source/Sender (A),
4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²),
5. Receiver (B),
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³),
7. Feedback (F),
8. Gatekeepers (C), and
9. Opinion leaders.

The Westley and Maclean communication model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident.
This is the type of stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about
what you had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late.

So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the
road accident you have witnessed.

Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore, allows us to

pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of
communication.

 Transactional communication models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first
introduce a new term for senders and receivers — communicators.

What is a transactional communication model?

Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction, meaning

that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the process of
communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.

Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information
during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape
our opinions.

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

These models also introduced the roles of:

 Social,

 Relational, and

 Cultural contexts.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective

communication — noise.

What are the main elements of transactional communication models?

If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can

identify the key components of this communication model:

 Encoding,

 Decoding,

 Communicators,

 The message,

 The channel, and

  Noise.

7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication

Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-
feedback communication.

What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model?

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular

process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the
receiver, both of whom can affect the message being sent.

The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback
from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide
feedback.

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s
effect and effectiveness.

What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model?

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following

main components of this communication model:

 Encoding,

 Decoding,

 Communicators,

 The message (including the cues, environment, and noise), and

 The channel.

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages.

So, Barnlund differentiates between:

 Public cues (environmental cues),

 Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and

 Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).

All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each
communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and
beliefs.

Barnlund’s transactional communication model example

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

 Face-to-face interactions,

 Chat sessions,

 Telephone conversations,

 Meetings, etc.
Why was there a misunderstanding in this conversation even though everything seemed
fine at first glance?

This misunderstanding has arisen due to cultural cues.

Namely, Catherine had thought that Irene wanted a day off on July 4th.

However, Irene comes from Canada and celebrates Independence Day on July 1st.

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication

According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of
communication, we expand our circle.

Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because
communication never repeats itself.

What is Dance’s Helical communication model?

Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that

gets more and more complex as communication progresses.

Dance’s Helical communication model example

Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout
their life.

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using
rudimentary methods of communication.

For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to
speak in words, and then in full sentences.

During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.

Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate
more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective
communication.

In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance’s helix.