Definition of a computer

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or "data." It has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data.

1. A device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs high-
speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise
processes information.

2. Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The term computer
is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means to calculate.

3. Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the
result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

4. Computers are electronic devices that accept data (input), process that data, produces output,
and then store (storage) the results.

5. A Computer is a device or set of devices that work under the control of a stored program,
automatically accepts and processes data to provide information.
• Automatic: it carries out instructions with minimum human intervention
• Re-programmable: it stores instruction (the program)
• A data processor: it carries out operations on data (numbers or words) made up of a
combination of digits to produce information.
6. A computer accepts and then processes input data according to the instructions it is given. The
elements of any sort of processing are INPUT, PROCESSING, STORAGE, and OUTPUT that
can be depicted as shown in the following diagram. A Computer operation is performed
according to programmed logical and arithmetical rules. The arithmetical element might be as
simple as x + y = z. The logic will be something along the lines of if x + y does not equal z then
add 3 to x and try again. A Program is a set of coded instructions, which tells the computer
what to do. For as long as the Instructions are being carried out they are usually held in the
computer’s internal storage or Backing Storage

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Computer system

A complete working computer. Computer systems will include the computer along with any software
and peripheral devices that are necessary to make the computer function. Every computer system, for
example, requires an operating system.

A system of interconnected computers that share a central storage system and various peripheral
devices such as a printers, scanners, or routers. Each computer connected to the system can operate
independently, but has the ability to communicate with other external devices and computers.

A computer system is a set of parts, including the computer itself, that work together to perform tasks.
These tasks may be relatively simple, as in a calculator, or they may be very complex, as in air traffic
control systems.
Brief history of computers

"Who invented the computer?" is not a question with a simple answer. The real answer is that many
inventors contributed to the history of computers and that a computer is a complex piece of machinery
made up of many parts, each of which can be considered a separate invention.

This series covers many of the major milestones in computer history (but not all of them) with a
concentration on the history of personal home computers. The computer as we know it today had its
beginning with a 19th century English mathematics professor name Charles Babbage.
He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this design that the basic framework of the computers of
today are based on. In its most basic form a computer is any device which aids humans in performing
various kinds of computations or calculations. In that respect the earliest computer was the abacus,
used to perform basic arithmetic operations.

Every computer supports some form of input, processing, and output. This is less obvious on a
primitive device such as the abacus where input, output and processing are simply the act of moving
the pebbles into new positions, seeing the changed positions, and counting. Regardless, this is what
computing is all about, in a nutshell. We input information, the computer processes it according to its
basic logic or the program currently running, and outputs the results.

Modern computers do this electronically, which enables them to perform a vastly greater number of
calculations or computations in less time. Despite the fact that we currently use computers to process
images, sound, text and other non-numerical forms of data, all of it depends on nothing more than basic

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numerical calculations. Graphics, sound etc. are merely abstractions of the numbers being crunched
within the machine; in digital computers these are the ones and zeros, representing electrical on and off
states and endless combinations of those. In other words every image, every sound, and every word
have a corresponding binary code.

While abacus may have technically been the first computer most people today associate the word
“computer” with electronic computers which were invented in the last century, and have evolved into
modern computers we know of today.

Computer History Computer History Computer History

Year/Enter Inventors/Inventions Description of Event
1936 Konrad Zuse - Z1 Computer First freely programmable computer.
John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry Who was first in the computing biz is
1942
ABC Computer not always as easy as ABC.
Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper
1944 The Harvard Mark 1 computer.
Harvard Mark I Computer
John Presper Eckert & John W.
1946 Mauchly 20,000 vacuum tubes later...
ENIAC 1 Computer
Frederic Williams & Tom
Kilburn Baby and the Williams Tube turn on
1948
Manchester Baby Computer & the memories.
The Williams Tube
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain & No, a transistor is not a computer, but
1947/48 Wiliam Shockley this invention greatly affected the
The Transistor history of computers.
John Presper Eckert & John W.
First commercial computer & able to
1951 Mauchly
pick presidential winners.
UNIVAC Computer

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 International Business Machines IBM enters into 'The History of
1953
IBM 701 EDPM Computer Computers'.
John Backus & IBM
The first successful high level
1954 FORTRAN Computer
programming language.
Programming Language
Stanford Research Institute,
The first bank industry computer -
1955 Bank of America, and General
also MICR (magnetic ink character
(In Use 1959) Electric
recognition) for reading checks.
ERMA and MICR
Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce
1958 Otherwise known as 'The Chip'
The Integrated Circuit
Steve Russell & MIT
1962 The first computer game invented.
Spacewar Computer Game
Douglas Engelbart Nicknamed the mouse because the
1964
Computer Mouse & Windows tail came out the end.
1969 ARPAnet The original Internet.
The world's first available dynamic
1970 Intel 1103 Computer Memory
RAM chip.
Faggin, Hoff & Mazor
1971 Intel 4004 Computer The first microprocessor.
Microprocessor
Alan Shugart &IBM Nicknamed the "Floppy" for its
1971
The "Floppy" Disk flexibility.
Robert Metcalfe & Xerox
1973 The Ethernet Computer Networking.
Networking
Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair & IBM
1974/75 The first consumer computers.
5100 Computers
1976/77 Apple I, II & TRS-80 & More first consumer computers.

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 Commodore Pet Computers
Dan Bricklin & Bob Frankston Any product that pays for itself in
1978
VisiCalc Spreadsheet Software two weeks is a surefire winner.
Seymour Rubenstein & Rob
1979 Barnaby Word Processors.
WordStar Software
IBM
From an "Acorn" grows a personal
1981 The IBM PC - Home
computer revolution
Computer
Microsoft
From "Quick And Dirty" comes the
1981 MS-DOS Computer Operating
operating system of the century.
System
The first home computer with a GUI,
1983 Apple Lisa Computer
graphical user interface.
The more affordable home computer
1984 Apple Macintosh Computer
with a GUI.
Microsoft begins the friendly war
1985 Microsoft Windows
with Apple.
SERIES TO BE CONTINUED

Basic characteristics computer are:

1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that
we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer
in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second).
From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.

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2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7 determined on the basis of design of computer. The
errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in
routine type of work.

4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare
electric bills.

5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data.
Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It
depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve
these data.

6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user.
It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want
to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can
also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer
and can be carried to other computers.

Computer Care and Maintenance

Protect Your Computer from Damage

Computer care and maintenance is often overlooked by the average user. Yet, taking a few precautions
as you work, and learning to use the computer and its file system properly, can save you trouble in the
long run.

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Time taken, once or twice a month, to perform a few simple clean up procedures and use a couple of
maintenance utilities, can make a big difference in how your computer performs.

You can reduce the number of freeze-ups, the number of fatal errors and the number of reboots your
computer has. You can also reduce the amount of downtime your system experiences as a result of
having to cope with these problems, as well as reducing your stress level.

Not only that, but with a little preventive maintenance and proper computer care, you can increase the
overall speed and efficiency of your computer.

Like any kind of equipment, your computer requires care and maintenance to run smoothly. A number
of factors can cause damage to your computer's hardware (the physical parts inside the computer) or
media (storage devices like CD-ROMs and hard drives):

• Extreme heat, cold, or humidity can cause physical damage to a computer's internal
components or media (external and internal).
• Electrical or magnetic fields can damage computers and media. Sources of magnetic fields
include magnets, motors, speakers and televisions.
• A damaged cable will prevent the computer from communicating with input or output devices.
• Dust can damage hard drives and floppy disk drives and can prevent computers from cooling
properly.

As you know, computers require electricity to operate. As such, problems can arise when there are
power outages and power irregularities (called power spikes or power surges). If the power goes out
while a file is open, the computer will shut off and all changes to the file since the last time you saved
will be lost. Power spikes are sudden surges of increased electricity that usually occur when the power
comes back on after an outage. They can also be caused by atmospheric conditions (such as lightning)
in buildings with poor or defective wiring. Power spikes can cause physical damage to many of the
components of your computer, especially the hard drive.

Troubleshooting

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There are several common problems you are likely to experience with a computer at some point. More
serious problems like hard drive failures or malfunctioning monitors (monitors which do not display or
display incorrectly) are not as widespread as they once were, but difficulties with hardware devices like
printers and scanners are still common. Often the device is not plugged in or turned on, or it is not
connected to the computer correctly. Sometimes the device itself is not set up properly. Below are
some simple hardware troubleshooting tips:

• Make sure the power is on to the device. Most computer equipment will have a power light or
even a display screen.
• Make sure devices that need external power sources are plugged in.
• Check the connections to the device.
• Check the connections to the computer.
• Make sure all cables are in good condition.
• Verify the set up of the device.
• Make sure the computer is set up to work with the device.

Cleaning the Mouse and Keyboard

Poor maintenance is often the cause of many hardware problems. If a mouse becomes dirty, it will not
track smoothly. When a keyboard is contaminated with food particles (usually caused when people eat
at their desks) the keys become “sticky,” meaning they do not spring back up immediately after you
press them. Dust particles (including paper dust) cause printers to jam and smear your printouts.
Keeping these and other devices well maintained will make them work better and last longer.

There are several simple things you can do to help maintain your computer.

• Regularly clean the keyboard and mouse.

• Clean the printer of any dirt or dust to prevent jamming.
• Carefully remove any paper jams. Damaging the printer will make it jam more often and
decrease print quality.

While there is a lot that you can do to your computer to keep it running smoothly, there are some
maintenance activities that should only be performed by an experienced professional. These include:

• Replacing or upgrading internal components of the computer.

• Repairing physical damage to peripheral equipment.
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 • Re-routing or adding electrical connections.

The activity below will help you learn the steps to clean your mouse and keyboard. Keeping a clean
work area will help prolong the file of your computer hardware, and will reduce the amount of routine
cleaning needed to maintain them. Important: Get your teacher's permission before disconnecting any
input device or cleaning any part of your computer. For this activity, you will need cotton swabs, a lint-
free cloth, rubbing alcohol, and compressed air.

1. If you are using an optical mouse, all you need to do is make sure the exterior of the mouse is
clean.
2. If you are using a mechanical mouse, disconnect it from the computer.
3. Turn the mouse upside down and remove the plastic ring that holds the ball in place. There are
usually arrows that tell you in which direction to turn the ring.
4. Remove the ball and check for lint on the ball and inside the mouse.
5. Use a cotton swab and a small amount of rubbing alcohol to clean the rollers inside the mouse.
Clean the mouse ball with a swab.
6. Allow the mouse and ball to dry before reassembly.
7. Clean your mouse pad and the area of your desk where the mouse will be used.
8. To clean your keyboard, first turn off your computer.
9. Disconnect the keyboard from the computer.
10. If you have a can of compressed air, spray between all of the keys.
11. Turn the keyboard over and gently shake out the crumbs and dust.
12. Use a cotton swab and a small amount of rubbing alcohol to clean between the keys.
13. Use a damp lint-free cloth (water is fine) to wipe the keys.
14. Allow the keyboard to dry before connecting it to your computer.
15. Clean the area around your keyboard to keep dust away from your keyboard.

Maintaining Your Hard Drive

If you do not regularly take the time to organize your desk, it will become harder and harder to find
what you need. Just like your desktop, your hard disk will become cluttered if you do not take the time
to organize it. Poorly organized files will lead to a decrease in the performance of your computer. It
will take longer to locate the files you need. Keeping a clean and organized hard disk will result in
better system performance. The easiest way to do this is to delete unused or temporary files regularly.

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A variety of utility programs are available to help keep your computer safe and running without errors.
Some are supplied with the Windows operating system, others are available for free, and some are
available for purchase.

• Defragmentation software like Diskeeper or the one supplied with the Windows operating
system gather files into one area on the hard disk to make searching faster.
• Disk Compression programs like Virtual Drive and FarStone are designed to minimized the
amount of space used by files on the computer.
• Disk Scanning programs like ScanDisk (supplied with the Windows operating system) check
for and attempt to repair errors on the hard disk.
• Firewall software like ZoneAlarm and BlackICE keep others from accessing the computer
through the Internet.
• Spyware Detectors like Spybot SP and BPS Spyware Detector check and remove spyware
programs that send information from the computer to the Internet.
• Virus Detection software like Norton AntiVirus and McAfee VirusScan detect and remove
potentially damaging viruses from the computer.

Care and maintenance of laptops

It is important to take care of your laptop to keep it in good shape; prevention is always better than
cure. There are a number of easy things that you can do to keep your laptop in great shape; following
these easy steps will help to ensure that it lasts longer and will need less maintenance. As an added
bonus, many of the steps will also maintain your laptop's speed.

Keep liquids away from your laptop. As tempting as it might be to drink coffee, soda, water or any
other liquid near your laptop, accidents can happen all too easily. Alternatively, use a cup with a cover
on it, so even if it does spill, the liquid doesn't go anywhere. Spilled liquids may damage the internal
microelectronic components or cause electrical injury to the laptop. Short circuits can corrupt data or
even permanently destroy some parts. The solution is very simple: Keep your drinks away from your
computer. Even if you're careful, someone else might bump into your desk or you.

Having an available antivirus software would help. Even if you know what you download, it may
contain a virus that can lead to a circuit error or software problem in your system hardware or software.
It may also slow down the system operations and performance.

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Keep food away from your laptop. Don't eat over your laptop, the crumbs can go down between the
keys in the keyboard and provide an invitation to small bugs. The crumbs can also damage the
circuitry. Worse, it makes the laptop look dirty if there are crumbs and food stains on it.

Always have clean hands when using your laptop. Clean hands make it easier to use your laptop
touchpad and there will be less risk of leaving dirt and other stains on the computer. In addition, if you
clean your hands before use, you will help reduce wear and tear on the coating of the laptop caused by
contact with sweat and small particles that can act upon the laptop's exterior underneath your wrists and
fingers.

Protect the LCD display monitor. When you shut your laptop, make sure there are no small items,
such as a pencil or small ear-phones, on the keyboard. These can damage the display screen when shut;
the screen will scratch if the item is rough. Close the lid gently and holding from the middle. Closing
the lid using only one side causes pressure on that hinge, and over time can cause it to bend and snap.

Hold and lift the computer by its base, not by its LCD display (the screen). If you lift it by the
screen part alone, you could damage the display or the hinges attaching it to the base. The display is
also easily scratched or damaged by direct pressure – avoid placing pressure on it.

Don't pull on the power cord. Tugging your power cord out from the power socket rather than putting
your hand directly on the plug in the socket and pulling can break off the plug or damage the power
socket. Also, if you have the power point near your feet, avoid constantly bumping into the plug or you
could loosen it and eventually break it.

Don't roll your chair over the computer cord. Stick the cord onto your desk with tape or a special
computer cord tie which can be easily undone when you've finished using the laptop. Always try to
keep most of the cord away from the floor or your legs; sometimes you can be so engrossed in what
you're doing that you move your legs and forget the cord is there.

Plug in accessory devices into their proper slots. Always look at the symbols on the laptop carefully
before inserting devices. Jamming a phone line into an Ethernet port or vice versa could damage the
sockets, making it impossible to use them again. It is very important to observe this step.

Handle any removable drives with care. Floppy drives or CD drives that have been removed from
your laptop can easily get crushed, dropped or pressed if you are careless. Put them straight into a bag
or a storage box/case for safe keeping if you are not putting them back into the laptop.

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Insert drives into their slots carefully and at the correct angle. Pushing the wrong drive into a
socket, or at an angle, or even upside down can jam it.

Check to see if labels are affixed securely before inserting media into your laptop computer.
Media such as CDs, DVDs or floppy disks should not have any loose label parts that might jam inside
the laptop drive. Never insert undersized CDs, as these can damage the disk player permanently.

Don't expose your laptop to rapid temperature changes. When bringing your laptop indoors during
winter, don't turn it on immediately. Instead, let it warm to room temperature first. This will avoid any
potential for damage to the disk drive from condensation forming inside the machine. Avoid heat from
sunlight as well.

Don't leave your laptop in a car. Not only do the insides of cars experience large temperature swings
that could damage a laptop, but a laptop (or laptop bag) is an inviting target for a smash and grab thief.

Have the unit cleaned annually to remove internal dust. Get this done by a computer professional,
or do it yourself if you can. If dust accumulates, the system cannot cool itself correctly. Heat can
destroy the motherboard.

Avoid placing heavy materials, such as books, on top of your laptop and keyboard. This can push
the LCD screen into the keyboard, and will eventually damage it. Also, the CD-ROM insert will also
be squished and, eventually, will break.

Use a properly-sized laptop case. Whatever you use to carry your laptop around in, be it a case, a bag
or something you have made yourself, make sure that it it large enough to contain the laptop. This will
avoid scratching, squeezing or even potentially dropping it.

Look into getting a laptop bag. Many breaks happen because of laptops being dropped or bumped. A
bag greatly reduces the risk of damage.

Use and store in a well-ventilated area. When you are using your laptop, do so in a place that has a
constant air-circulation. Lots of people ruin their laptop by using it in an enclosed area and thus making
the laptop overheat.

Use an old toothbrush to clean the area around the exhaust fan screen. If that gets plugged up, air
flow is diminished and overheating can occur.

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Try and keep the laptop on a flat, clean surface. This prevents damage to the laptop. This step can
be hard, particularly if you are going out with your laptop, but if there is a flat surface available to put
your laptop on then do so.

Don't use your laptop on the bed. Repeated use of the laptop on the bed will cause the fans to suck up
the dust and debris which lies in the bed, ultimately blocking the fan. Refrain from this by using the
laptop somewhere else than the bed.

Basic parts of a computer

• System unit
• Storage
• Mouse
• Keyboard
• Monitor
• Printer
• Speakers
• Modem

If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the
"computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which
you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the
instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.)

The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your system
may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has similar parts
but combines them into a single notebook-sized package.

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 Desktop computer system

Let's take a look at each of these parts.

System unit

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information. The
most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which
acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which
temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in
RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug
into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the
system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.

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 System unit

Storage

Your computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store information on a metal or plastic disk.
The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.

Hard disk drive

Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack of platters
with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information, they usually
serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The
hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

Hard disk drive

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CD and DVD drives

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the
system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives can also write
(record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank
CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

CD

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive, you can
watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs.

Tip

• If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy) your important files to
CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk ever fails, you won't lose your data.

Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared to
CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also retrieve information
more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than
they used to be, although some computers still include them.

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 Floppy disk

Why are floppy disks "floppy"? Even though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's just the sleeve.
The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material.

Mouse

A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice
come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and
connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.

Mouse

A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button.
Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through
screens of information.

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The
pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want
to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing
and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer.

Keyboard

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A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter, it has
keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:

• The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where they
are used.
• The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers
quickly.
• The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a
document or webpage.

Keyboard

You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform with a mouse. For
more information, see Using your keyboard.

Monitor

A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that
displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can show still
or moving pictures.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid crystal
display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being
much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more affordable.

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 LCD monitor (left); CRT monitor
(right)

Printer

A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer, but
having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and other materials. Many
people also like being able to print their own photos at home.

The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most popular
printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color and can produce high-quality
photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better able to handle
heavy use.

Inkjet printer (left); laser printer

(right)

Speakers

Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with cables.
Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

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 Computer speakers

Modem

To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and
receives computer information over a telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems are sometimes built
into the system unit, but higher-speed modems are usually separate components.

Classification of Computer by size or capacity or speed

The computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computers are broadly
classified into four categories based on their size i.e.—(1) Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3)
Mainframe computers, and (4) Supercomputer.

Microcomputers

Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU, input unit,
output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone machines, they
can be connected together to create a network of computers that can serve more than one user. IBM PC
based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of microcomputers.
Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computers or laptop, tablet computer, handheld
computer, smart phones and notebook, as shown in Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is

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the most common type of microcomputer. It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk.
Externally, it consists of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU,
memory, hard disk drive, etc. It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a single user at
home, small business units, and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell and Lenovo are some of the
PC manufacturers.

• Notebook Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook. They are portable and have all the
features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can be put
inside a briefcase), can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the functionality
of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while working (hence the name). Laptops are
costlier than the desktop machines.
• Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are designed
for accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late 2007, they have
gained significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the performance needed to enjoy popular
activities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web surfing or instant messaging. The
word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook.
• Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a stylus or
a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet computer are the new
kind of PCs.
• Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small computer that can be held
on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a pen or a stylus
for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory and are less powerful.
PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection. Casio and Apple are some of
the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have merged into mobile phones to
create smart phones.
• Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They may
use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the Internet
wirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play games, etc.
Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of smart phones.

Characteristics

• They brought revolution in the history of computers.

• They are also known as Personal Computers.

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 • They are cheap and user friendly.
• The main components are Monitor, CPU, Keyboard, Mouse, Speakers, Modem and Printer.
• They are having limited peripherals attached to them.
• This type of computers can use wide range of software.
• They are used as desktops either in offices or even homes.
• Their operation can be easily learnt by anyone having logical aptitude.
• Children enjoy playing games & watching movies in these computers’
• Most popular micro computer’s processing chip manufacturing company is Intel.

Minicomputers

Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They have high processing
speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers. Minicomputers can support 4–200 users
simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They are used
for real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000 series) are some of
the widely used minicomputers.

Characteristics

• They have less memory & storage capacity than mainframe Computers.
• They offer limited range of peripherals.
• Limited range of software can be used by them.
• The end users can directly operate it.
• They are not very sensitive to the external environment and hence are more generalized.
• They are used for data processing.

Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computers. They
operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the workload of many
users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized databases.
The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an intelligent
terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do processing of its own. It has the input and

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output device only. An intelligent terminal has the input and output device, can do processing, but,
cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the processing power and the
storage facility of the mainframe computer. Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks
or companies, where many people require frequent access to the same data. Some examples of
mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM ES000 series.

Characteristics

• They are big computer systems sensitive to temperature, humidity, dust etc.
• Qualified & trained operators are required to operate them.
• They have wide range of peripherals attached.
• They have large storage capacity.
• They can use wide variety of software.
• They are not user friendly.
• They can be used for more mathematical calculations.
• They are installed in large commercial places or government organization

Supercomputers

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high processing speed
compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (Floating
point Operations per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations
per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands of processors that can work in
parallel.

Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting, climate
research (global warming), molecular research, biological research, nuclear research and aircraft
design. They are also used in major universities, military agencies and scientific research laboratories.
Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel ASCI red. PARAM
is a series of supercomputer assembled in India by C-DAC (Center for Development of Advanced

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Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this series. The peak computing power
of PARAM Padma is 1 Tera FLOP (TFLOP).

Characteristics

• They are used for performing complex mathematical calculations.

• Only scientists and mathematicians can operate them.
• They are having huge memories & tremendous processing speed.
• They are used for whether forecasting, animation graphics etc
• They are huge computers installed in space centers, nuclear power stations etc.

Classification of Computer by purpose

There are two types in this category i.e. General Purpose and Special Purpose computers.

General purpose: Which performs more than one different function and used generally. General
purpose computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous
programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. These machines have the capability of dealing with variety
of different problems, and are able to act in response to programs created to meet different needs. A
general-purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of instruction and thus
to perform a variety of operations.

Special purpose: Which, performs one special function like ATM machine, fuel pumps, calculators,
colorimeters, automatic vehicles, washing machine, etc Specific purpose computers are designed to
handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.
As to the name implies, is designed to perform one specific tasks. The program of instructions is built
into, or permanently stored in the machine. Specialization results in the given task being preformed
very quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose computers have the capability of performing just one
task. They are frequently referred to us "dedicated," because of their limitations to the specific task at
hand.

Classification of Computer by function, type or data handled.

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The classification of computers by the type of data they handle can divided as computers that handle
analog data, computers that handle digital data, or computers that use both analog and digital data. The
data required for processing may be obtained either as a result of counting or through some measuring
device. Data obtained through counting is known as discrete data, while that obtained through
measuring instruments is known as continuous data. An example of discrete data is the number of
marks obtained by a student in an examination, while the constant monitoring of the Electro-
Cardiogram of a patient is an example of continuous data.

Analog Computers

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous
physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved. The analog computers do not directly interact with numbers, but rather deal with variables
measured along a continuous scale, like the temperature of a room. Analog computers may be accurate
to within 0.1% of the correct value. A computing machine that operates on data in the form of
continuously variable physical quantities is known as analog computer. These computers do not deal
directly with the numbers. They measure continuous physical magnitudes (e.g. temperature, pressure
and voltage), which are analogous to the numbers under consideration. For example, the petrol pump
may have an analog computer that converts the flow of pumped petrol into two measurements: the
quantity of petrol and the price of that quantity.

Analog computers are used for scientific and engineering purposes. One of the characteristics of these
computers is that they give approximate results since they deal with quantities that vary continuously.
The main feature of analog computers is that they are very fast in operation as all the calculations are
done in 'parallel mode'. It is very easy to get graphical results directly using analog computer.
However, the accuracy of analog computers is less.

Digital computers

A digital computer operates on discrete data. It works basically by directly counting numbers that
represent numerals, letters or other functional symbols. Digital computers can be further divided into
special purpose and general purpose digital computers. A computer that performs calculations and
logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system A
computer that operates with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form is
known as digital computer. Such computers process data (including text, sound, graphics and video)

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into a digital value (in 0s and 1s). In digital computers, analog quantities must be converted into digital
quantity before processing. In this case, the output will also be digital. If analog output is desired, the
digital output has to be converted into analog quantity. The components, which perform these
conversions, are the essential parts or peripherals of the digital computer. Digital computers can give
the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate. The accuracy of such computers is limited only by
the size of their registers and memory. The desktop PC is a classic example of digital computer.

Hybrid Computers

A hybrid computing system is one in which desirable characteristics of both the analog and digital
computers are integrated. In an intensive care unit, analog computers may measure the patient's heart
rate, temperature, etc. The measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to the
digital part of the system which will thereafter regulate the flow of certain medications. A combination
of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid
computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations. Hybrid
computer incorporated the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a digital
computer. For computational purposes, these computers use the analog components and for the storage
of intermediate results, digital memories are used. To bind the powers of analog and digital techniques,
that is, analog to digital and digital to analog, the hybrid computers comprehensively use converters.
Such computers are broadly used in scientific applications, various fields of engineering and industrial
control processes.

Classification of Computers by Generations/Evolutions/Chronicles..

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used or

advancement in technology of computers. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish
between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and
software, which together make up an entire computer system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period, characteristics. We've used approximate dates against each
generation which are normally accepted.

First Generation (1942-1955)

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First generation of computer started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and
circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and
were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded
only by very large organizations.

In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation Punched
cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used.

There were Machine code and electric wired board languages used.

The main features of First Generation are:

• Vacuum tube technology

• Unreliable
• Supported Machine language only
• Very costly
• Generate lot of heat

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 • Slow Input/Output device
• Huge size
• Need of A.C.
• Non portable
• Consumed lot of electricity

Some computer of this generation were:

• ENIAC
• EDVAC
• UNIVAC
• IBM-701
• IBM-650

Advantages

• Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
• Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
• These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages

• The computers were very large in size.

• They consumed a large amount of energy.
• They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
• They were not very reliable.
• Air conditioning was required.
• Constant maintenance was required.
• Non-portable.
• Costly commercial production.
• Limited commercial use.
• Very slow speed.
• Limited programming capabilities.
• Used machine language only.
• Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.

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 • Used punch cards for input.
• Not versatile and very faulty.

Second Generation (1955-1964)

This generation using the transistor was cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more
reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation,
magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary
storage devices. In this generation assembly language and high level programming language like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. There was Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system
used.

The main features of Second Generation are:

• Use of transistors
• Reliable as compared to First generation computers
• Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
• Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
• Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers
• Faster than first generation computers
• Still very costly

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 • A.C. needed
• Support machine and assembly languages

Some computer of this generation were:

• IBM 1620
• IBM 7094
• CDC 1604
• CDC 3600
• UNIVAC 1108

Advantages

• Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.

• The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
• Used less energy and were not heated.
• Wider commercial use
• Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
• Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
• Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
• Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
• Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages

• Cooling system was required

• Constant maintenance was required
• Commercial production was difficult
• Only used for specific purposes
• Costly and not versatile
• Puch cards were used for input.

Third Generation (1964-1975)

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The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated
circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable and efficient. In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-
programming Operating System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of Third Generation are:

• IC used
• More reliable
• Smaller size
• Generate less heat
• Faster
• Lesser maintenance
• Still costly
• A.C needed
• Consumed lesser electricity
• Support high level language

Some computer of this generation was:

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 • IBM-360 series
• Honeywell-6000 series
• PDP(Personal Data Processor)
• IBM-370/168
• TDC-316

Advantages

• Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.

• More reliable.
• Used less energy
• Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
• Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
• Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
• Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is reare.
• Totally general purpose
• Could be used for high-level languages.
• Good storage
• Versatile to an extent
• Less expensive
• Better accuracy
• Commercial production increased.
• Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages

• Air conditioning was required.

• Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

Fourth Generation (1975-Present)

The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated
circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
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Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave
rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.

In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used.

All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

• VLSI technology used

• Very cheap
• Portable and reliable
• Use of PC's
• Very small size
• Pipeline processing
• No A.C. needed
• Concept of internet was introduced
• Great developments in the fields of networks
• Computers became easily available

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Some computers of this generation were:

• DEC 10
• STAR 1000
• PDP 11
• CRAY-1(Super Computer)
• CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Advantages

• More powerful and reliable than previous generations.

• Small in size
• Fast processing power with less power consumption
• Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
• No air conditioning required.
• Totally general purpose
• Commercial production
• Less need of repair.
• Cheapest among all generations
• All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages

• The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond)

The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date. Scientists are working hard on the 5th generation
computers with quite a few breakthroughs. It is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence (AI).
Computers can understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning. Can respond to its surroundings
using different types of sensors. Scientists are constantly working to increase the processing power of
computers. They are trying to create a computer with real IQ with the help of advanced programming
and technologies. IBM Watson computer is one example that outsmarts Harvard University
Students. The advancement in modern technologies will revolutionize the computer in future.

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In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology,
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.

AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making
computers think like human beings.

All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.

AI includes:

• Robotics
• Neural networks
• Game Playing
• Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
• Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of Fifth Generation are:

• ULSI technology

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 • Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Parallel Processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
• More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

• Desktop
• Laptop
• NoteBook
• UltraBook
• ChromeBook
• Iphones
• Ipads etc

Computer Networking

What is a Computer Network?

Computer Networking is a technological process of connecting of two or more computers that are
linked together in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone
lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Computer networking is an engineering discipline that aims to study and analyze the communication
process among various computing devices or computer systems that are linked, or networked, together
to exchange information and share resources.

Two very common types of networks include:

• Local Area Network (LAN)

• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)/Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN):

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Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally
limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building.

Computers connected to a network are broadly categorized as servers or workstations. Servers are
generally not used by humans directly, but rather run continuously to provide "services" to the other
computers (and their human users) on the network. Services provided can include printing and faxing,
software hosting, file storage and sharing, messaging, data storage and retrieval, complete access
control (security) for the network's resources, and many others.

Workstations are called such because they typically do have a human user which interacts with the
network through them. Workstations were traditionally considered a desktop, consisting of a computer,
keyboard, display, and mouse, or a laptop, with with integrated keyboard, display, and touchpad. With
the advent of the tablet computer, and the touch screen devices such as iPad and iPhone, our definition
of workstation is quickly evolving to include those devices, because of their ability to interact with the
network and utilize network services.

Servers tend to be more powerful than workstations, although configurations are guided by needs. For
example, a group of servers might be located in a secure area, away from humans, and only accessed
through the network. In such cases, it would be common for the servers to operate without a dedicated
display or keyboard. However, the size and speed of the server's processor(s), hard drive, and main
memory might add dramatically to the cost of the system. On the other hand, a workstation might not
need as much storage or working memory, but might require an expensive display to accommodate the
needs of its user. Every computer on a network should be appropriately configured for its use.

On a single LAN, computers and servers may be connected by cables or wirelessly. Wireless access to
a wired network is made possible by wireless access points (WAPs). These WAP devices provide a
bridge between computers and networks. A typical WAP might have the theoretical capacity to connect
hundreds or even thousands of wireless users to a network, although practical capacity might be far
less.

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Nearly always servers will be connected by cables to the network, because the cable connections
remain the fastest. Workstations which are stationary (desktops) are also usually connected by a cable
to the network, although the cost of wireless adapters has dropped to the point that, when installing
workstations in an existing facility with inadequate wiring, it can be easier and less expensive to use
wireless for a desktop.

See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of this tutorial for more information on the
configuration of a LAN.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the United
States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this
type of global network. A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-scale
geographical area. A WAN connects different smaller networks, including local area networks (LAN)
and metro area networks (MAN). This ensures that computers and users in one location can
communicate with computers and users in other locations. WAN implementation can be done either
with the help of the public transmission system or a private network.

Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of seconds,
without paying enormous phone bills. Two users a half-world apart with workstations equipped with
microphones and a webcams might teleconference in real time. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers, bridges, and routers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global
communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much
different than a LAN. A WAN connects more than one LAN and is used for larger geographical areas.
WANs are similar to a banking system, where hundreds of branches in different cities are connected
with each other in order to share their official data.

A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically, TCP/IP is the protocol
used for a WAN in combination with devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and modems.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)/Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN):

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Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)/Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN): Formed without the
use of wires or physical media to connect hosts with the server. The data is transferred over radio
transceivers. A wireless wide area network (WWAN) is a specific type of network that sends wireless
signals beyond a single building or property. By contrast, a local area network or LAN connects
computers and other hardware pieces inside a residential or commercial property. Wireless wide area
networks and wireless local area networks also differ in the types of signal processing technologies
they use. While local area networks often rely on Ethernet, twisted-pair cabling or short-range wireless
routers, a wireless WAN may use various types of cellular network systems to send signals over a
longer distance. Large telecom providers like T-Mobile, Sprint, Verizon and AT&T typically support a
wireless WAN in one way or another, and these larger types of networks often require some types of
encryption or security that a local area network may not need.

Because wireless wide area networks rely on the same telecom systems that support the delivery of
data and voice to and from modern tablet and smartphone devices, these larger types of networks may
also be vulnerable to what’s called a spectrum crunch, where a current shortage in the limited amount
of wireless spectrum frequencies may have an impact on how telecom providers can deliver services to
a growing consumer base. This may cause some wireless wide area network administrators to change
elements of their networks in order to rely less on systems that are reaching a point of maximum
capacity.

Advantages of Computer networking (school set up)

1. User access control.

Modern networks almost always have one or more servers which allow centralized management for
users and for network resources to which they have access. User credentials on a privately-owned and
operated network may be as simple as a user name and password, but with ever-increasing attention to
computing security issues, these servers are critical to ensuring that sensitive information is only
available to authorized users.
2. Information storing and sharing.
Computers allow users to create and manipulate information. Information takes on a life of its own on a
network. The network provides both a place to store the information and mechanisms to share that
information with other network users.
3. Connections.

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Administrators, instructors, and even students and guests can be connected using the campus network.
4. Services.
The school can provide services, such as registration, school directories, course schedules, access to
research, and email accounts, and many others. (Remember, network services are generally provided
by servers).
5. Internet.
The school can provide network users with access to the internet, via an internet gateway.
6. Computing resources.
The school can provide access to special purpose computing devices which individual users would not
normally own. For example, a school network might have high-speed high quality printers strategically
located around a campus for instructor or student use.
7. Flexible Access.
School networks allow students to access their information from connected devices throughout the
school. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access area of
the network, then go to the media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
8. Workgroup Computing.
Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about
new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or website.

Disadvantages of Computer networking (school set up)

1. Expensive to Install.
Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags. Cabling, network cards, routers, bridges, firewalls,
wireless access points, and software can get expensive, and the installation would certainly require the
services of technicians. But, with the ease of setup of home networks, a simple network with internet
access can be setup for a small campus in an afternoon.
2. Requires Administrative Time.
Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed
a network, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
3. Servers Fail.

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Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the files
server "goes down" the entire network may come to a halt. Good network design practices say that
critical network services (provided by servers) should be redundant on the network whenever possible.
4. Cables May Break.
The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations of cables. Some of the
configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other
configurations, one broken cable can stop the entire network.
5. Security and compliance.
Network security is expensive. It is also very important. A school network would possibly be subject to
more stringent security requirements than a similarly-sized corporate network, because of its likelihood
of storing personal and confidential information of network users, the danger of which can be
compounded if any network users are minors. A great deal of attention must be paid to network
services to ensure all network content is appropriate for the network community it serves.

Summary of the Advantages and disadvantages of networks

Advantages

• Sharing devices such as printers saves money.

• Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licenses.
• Files can easily be shared between users.
• Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
• Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
• Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.

Disadvantages

• Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.

• Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually
needs to be employed.
• If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. Email might still
work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used but are isolated.
• Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.

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 • There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are
needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

Network topology?

In communication networks, a topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a

network, including its nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry:
the physical topology and the logical (or signal) topology. The physical topology of a network is the
actual geometric layout of workstations e.g. Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh and Tree topologies.

Logical (or signal) topology refers to the nature of the paths the signals follow from node to node. In
many instances, the logical topology is the same as the physical topology. But this is not always the
case. For example, some networks are physically laid out in a star configuration, but they operate
logically as bus or ring networks.

Types of network topologies

Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to
connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that
devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another
device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the
intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the
alternatives. 10Base-2 ("ThinNet") and 10Base-5 ("ThickNet") both were popular Ethernet cabling
options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of
devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will
likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

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Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages
travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any
cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network,
one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office
buildings or school campuses.

Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a
"hub node" that may be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star
network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub
fails, however, the entire network also fails.)

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Tree Topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub
devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the root of a tree of devices. This
bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited
in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of
hub connection points) alone.

Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent
on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even
in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most
notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.

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A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the
illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to
others.

NB

Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. You can probably build a home or
small business computer network without understanding the difference between a bus design and a star
design, but becoming familiar with the standard topologies gives you a better understanding of
important networking concepts like hubs, broadcasts, and routes.

Virus Protection

What is a Virus?

A computer virus is a program written to enter your computer system surreptitiously and "infect" it by
installing or modifying files or establishing itself in memory. Some viruses are benign and won't harm
your system, while others are destructive and can damage or destroy your data.

Viruses can spread via any of the methods used to get information into your computer: network
connections, shared folders, e-mail, and shared media such as flash memory, CDs, and diskettes. Once

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they are established on your computer, viruses work at transferring themselves to other computers. The
process is not unlike the one used by viruses that affect us humans.

Sometimes people differentiate viruses by the methods they use to spread. Worms are viruses that self-
replicate and spread via e-mail or networks. Trojans are seemingly legitimate computer programs that
have been intentionally designed to disrupt your computing activity or use your computer for
something you did not intend.

What other types of programs can harm my computer?

With improvements in communications between computers, the number of viruses, worms and Trojans
and the speed with they spread have increased dramatically. Flaws in operating systems like Windows
or peer-to-peer file sharing programs and other widely distributed network software may open
"backdoors" to your computer that can be exploited later. Some people constantly look for a backdoor
or entry way into your computer so they can run malicious code, infect your system, or use your
computer for their own personal benefit.

Some popular peer-to-peer programs are: Acquisition, Aimster, Ares, Audiogalaxy, BearShare,
BitTorrent (and other BitTorrent clients), Blubster, Direct Connect, eDonkey2000, Freewire, Gnotella,
Gnucleus, Grokster, GTK-Gnutella, iMesh, Kazaa, LimeWire, LordofSearch, Mactella, Morpheus,
NeoNapster, OneMX, Overnet, Phex, Piolet, Qtella, Shareaza, SoulSeek, SwapNut, TrustyFiles, Warez
P2P, WinMX, and XoLoX. Some of these are, no doubt, safer than others. All of them make your
computer more accessible from the Internet. Less restricted access from the Internet almost always
translates into a higher risk of being victimized.

Backdoors created by spyware may also be vulnerable to viruses. Spyware provides (or purports to
provide) some kind of service in exchange for monitoring and reporting your activities. At a minimum,
spyware is likely to degrade the performance of your computer and increase traffic on your network
connection. It may also result in annoying pop-up advertisements while you surf the Web. In the worst
cases, computers become so clogged with spyware that they are no longer usable.

Ad-Aware from Lavasoft and Spybot Search and Destroy from Safer Networking are two preferred
tools for combating spyware. Both are free for personal use.

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Symptoms of computers infected with virus

Oh, the not-so-humble computer virus. For decades, it's been making computer users miserable.

It's like the common cold. You'd think someone would have cured both by now. Unfortunately, it looks
like computer viruses are just getting stronger and smarter.

In the early days, a virus would delete your files and spread to other computers. It was annoying, but
the effects were easy to detect and contain.

Today, in addition to traditional viruses, there are Trojans, worms, ransom ware, spyware, adware and
plenty of other "wares." The computer industry term for all this is "malware."

Even state-of-the-art computer security can't always keep up with new threats. Of course, everyone
should still be running up-to-date security programs. Fortunately, there are excellent free anti-virus,
spyware and firewall programs.

Every type of malware does something a little differently. You might not even recognize that your
computer is infected. To help you out, here are five signs you can look for.

Pop-up ads

Running into pop-up ads while surfing the Web used to be par for the course. Thanks to pop-up
blocking now standard in modern browsers, these annoyances aren't common.

Still seeing pop-ups online from multiple sites? It could be a badly-configured browser.

Seeing pop-ups when your browser isn't even open? It's usually adware, spyware or scareware.

You can usually tell it's the last one if the pop up says "a virus was detected." It will offer you a paid
program to remove the virus. Of course, you'll just be downloading even more malware.

Your regular anti-virus might not seem to stop this. In that case, run a scan with a separate anti-
spyware program. SpyBot Search & Destroy or Ad-Aware are two you could try. These can help you
get to the root of the problem.

Phantom messages

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A dangerous feature of most malware is that it spreads. With always-on Internet, email, instant
messaging and social media available, modern viruses have it easy.

Once they're on your computer, they have plenty of options. You might see friends replying to email
messages you didn't send. Perhaps you notice a post on your Facebook profile you didn't write.

In most cases, these will have a tempting link. If your friends and family click the link, they're infected
and the virus spreads even further.

Keep an eye on your email "sent" folder and on your social network posts. If you see items you didn't
send or post, change your account passwords immediately. This will lock out a virus that's stolen your
passwords.

Then go to work with your security software. After you've removed the virus, I'd change your
passwords again, just in case.

Be sure to let your friends and family know you were hacked. That way they can take precautions for
their accounts as well.

Locked computer

Having trouble taking back your account from a virus or hacker?

You're surfing the Web minding your own business. Suddenly a scary message appears. It says law
enforcement has detected illegal material on your computer. You've been locked out until you pay a
fine!

Of course it's a lie. A virus has taken over and is holding your computer ransom. That's why it's
commonly called "ransom ware."

Some ransom ware doesn't even try to be sneaky. It tells you up front that hackers took over your
system. You have to pay to get it back.

I don't recommend paying. You won't get your computer back.

Unfortunately, you probably won't be able to run your normal anti-virus program. You'll need a rescue
CD. AVG Rescue CD or Windows Defender Online are two that could take care of the problem.

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In some cases, the ransom ware actually encrypts your files. If that happens, you better have a recent
backup. Even if you get rid of the virus, your files might be lost.

Essential tools and programs stop working

If a computer is misbehaving, most computer users hit Ctrl + Alt + Del. The "three-finger salute" lets
you open up Task Manager. This can show you what programs are causing trouble.

Sometimes, you'll hit this keyboard shortcut and nothing happens. Your Start Menu won't open.
Nothing happens when you right-click on the desktop. Your security software won't run.

This is often a clue that a virus is messing with your computer. It's doing what it can to keep you from
identifying it and removing it.

This is where deep-cleaning anti-malware software like MalwareBytes will shine. If that fails, you'll
need to use a rescue CD like I mentioned earlier.

If nothing you do works, it could also be a hardware problem. Most likely it's bad RAM or a failing
power supply.

Everything is running fine

I run into many people who don't install security software. The excuse is always the same: "But my
computer runs just fine without it. If I had a virus, I'd know."

The simple fact is that you don't know. Modern malware can hide deep in your computer without
raising red flags. It will just quietly go about its business.

There are some sneaky viruses that will remove other viruses so you don't get suspicious!

Just because a virus isn't disruptive doesn't mean it isn't dangerous. It could be snagging your
passwords, sensitive files or other vital information. The virus could be using your computer to send
spam. It could even attack banks and other organizations.

You won't know until your identity is stolen and your bank account is drained. Maybe your Internet
slows to a crawl or your service provider shuts down your connection.

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Some people never figure it out. There are computers out there that have been sending spam for years.
Their owners have no clue.

That's why every computer user, even Mac users, needs up-to-date security software installed. Keep it
updated and set it to run regular, automatic scans.

And don't rely on just one program, but run a scan with several security programs at least once a
month. What one program misses other programs might find.

Common types of computer virus

1. Boot Sector Virus

The term “boot sector” is a generic name that seems to originally come from MS-DOS but is now
applied generally to the boot information used by any operating system. In modern computers this is
usually called the “master boot record,” and it is the first sector on a partitioned storage device.

Boot sector viruses became popular because of the use of floppy disks to boot a computer. The
widespread usage of the Internet and the death of the floppy has made other means of virus
transmission more effective.

2. Browser Hijacker
This type of virus, which can spread itself in numerous ways including voluntary download, effectively
hijacks certain browser functions, usually in the form of re-directing the user automatically to particular
sites. It’s usually assumed that this tactic is designed to increase revenue from web advertisements.

There are a lot of such viruses, and they usually have “search” included somewhere in their description.
CoolWebSearch may be the most well known example, but others are nearly as common.

3. Direct Action Virus

This type of virus, unlike most, only comes into action when the file containing the virus is executed.
The payload is delivered and then the virus essentially becomes dormant – it takes no other action
unless an infected file is executed again.

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Most viruses do not use the direct action method of reproduction simply because it is not prolific, but
viruses of this type have done damage in the past. The Vienna virus, which briefly threatened
computers in 1988, is one such example of a direct action virus.

4. File Infector Virus

Perhaps the most common type of virus, the file infector takes root in a host file and then begins its
operation when the file is executed. The virus may completely overwrite the file that it infects, or may
only replace parts of the file, or may not replace anything but instead re-write the file so that the virus
is executed rather than the program the user intended.

Although called a “file virus” the definition doesn’t apply to all viruses in all files generally – for
example, the macro virus below is not referred to by the file virus. Instead, the definition is usually
meant to refer only to viruses which use an executable file format, such as .exe, as their host.

5. Macro Virus

A wide variety of programs, including productivity applications like Microsoft Excel, provide support
for Macros – special actions programmed into the document using a specific macro programming
language. Unfortunately, this makes it possible for a virus to be hidden inside a seemingly benign
document.

Macro viruses very widely in terms of payload. The most well known macro virus is probably Melissa,
a Word document supposedly containing the passwords to pornographic websites. The virus also
exploited Word’s link to Microsoft Outlook in order to automatically email copies of itself.

6. Multipartite Virus

While some viruses are happy to spread via one method or deliver a single payload, Multipartite
viruses want it all. A virus of this type may spread in multiple ways, and it may take different actions
on an infected computer depending on variables, such as the operating system installed or the existence
of certain files.

7. Polymorphic Virus

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Another jack-of-all-trades, the Polymorphic virus actually mutates over time or after every execution,
changing the code used to deliver its payload. Alternatively, or in addition, a Polymorphic virus may
guard itself with an encryption algorithm that automatically alters itself when certain conditions are
met.

The goal of this trickery is evasion. Antivirus programs often find viruses by the specific code used.
Obscuring or changing the code of a virus can help it avoid detection.

8. Resident Virus

This broad virus definition applies to any virus that inserts itself into a system’s memory. It then may
take any number of actions and run independently of the file that was originally infected.

A resident virus can be compared to a direct payload virus, which does not insert itself into the
system’s memory and therefore only takes action when an infected file is executed.

9. Web Scripting Virus

Many websites execute complex code in order to provide interesting content. Displaying online video
in your browser, for example, requires the execution of a specific code language that provides both the
video itself and the player interface.

Of course, this code can sometimes be exploited, making it possible for a virus to infect a computer or
take actions on a computer through a website. Although malicious sites are sometimes created with
purposely infected code, many such cases of virus exist because of code inserted into a site without the
webmaster’s knowledge.

NB

I’ve included every type of computer virus in here that I felt is relevant, but this isn’t a list of every
type of virus known to man. Also, I did not include any Worms or Trojans, two common threats that
are similar to viruses but technically not the same. In some cases, Information Security is able to detect
a virus on your computer by tracing malicious network traffic or e-mail back to your network

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connection. One way we use to inform you of the problem is to block your computer's access to the
Internet and display a Security Warning Page whenever you attempt to access an off-campus web site.

Computer protection from Virus

1. Install a computer Antivirus

2. Update your antivirus software.
3. Disconnect your computer from the network to prevent it from transmitting the virus over the
network while it is still infected.
4. When using your antivirus software to do a complete scan of all your internal disk drives and
any external media such as flash memory or diskettes that you used since your computer
became infected.
5. Note the types of viruses that the antivirus software finds and, if possible, have it clean,
quarantine or remove any infected files.
6. Check the web site for the manufacturer of your antivirus software to see if you need to do
anything else to remove the viruses found on your computer and prevent them from infecting it
again. Some of these web sites are listed below:

▪ www.symantec.com
▪ www.sophos.com
▪ www.trendmicro.com
▪ www.mcafee.com

7. After you have verified that your computer is virus-free, you can connect it to the network
again.
8. Check to make sure that your computer has all critical updates for your operating system and
programs that you use. Install any critical updates that were missing.
9. If your computer was missing critical updates, make sure it did not get re-infected by
rescanning it for viruses. If your Internet connection is blocked with a Security Warning Page,
send [email protected] a request asking to have your Internet connection unblocked. The
request should include:

• The Reference Code from the Security Warning Page.

• Your name.

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 • The last four digits of your DU Id.
• Your @du.edu e-mail address.
• A statement of what you have done to remove the virus from your computer.

What else can I do to protect my computer from viruses?

Your first and best line of defense against any type of computer virus is a good, up-to-date antivirus
program. Set up the program to do real-time scans, update virus signatures at least weekly, and do
complete scans of your computer after signature updates.

Other important things you can do to protect yourself include:

• Keep software up to date. Because viruses often propagate by exploiting flaws in operating
systems or commonly used programs, keep your computer's operating system and other
software updated. Whenever possible configure your computer to download and install critical
updates automatically. Otherwise, check for software updates regularly.
• Avoid installing spyware and other software that may open backdoors that could be exploited.
• Only use e-mail services that scan messages for viruses. (DU does.)
• Deal with e-mail carefully. Viruses are often propagated via e-mail attachments. Avoid opening
attachments unless you are reasonably sure the e-mail is legitimate.

Common Types of Antivirus

An Antivirus is computer program designed to detect and destroy computer viruses or is computer
protective software designed to defend your computer against malicious software. Malicious software
or "malware" includes: viruses, Trojans, key loggers, hijackers, dialers, and other code that vandalizes
or steals your computer contents. In order to be an effective defense, your antivirus software needs to
run in the background at all times, and should be kept updated so it recognizes new versions of
malicious software.

Using an antivirus in your system is highly beneficial to track the spyware, viruses and other kind of
infected files that may affect your data and even destroy it. There are numerous antivirus software
available over the internet but not all are efficient to keep the system safe. Over the years, the antivirus
software industry has developed some of the best antivirus programs like Norton, Avast, AVG etc.

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which has been able to keep your system secure from the viruses as well as other spyware’s. Every
antivirus software has its own special features that can help to protect the system in a number of ways,
thus assuring complete safety.

So before depending on particular software, it is important to get familiar with its features and the
advantages it will offer.

1. Kaspersky antivirus – It is one of the costliest software which is available at the present time.
As compared to the other antivirus software’s it is highly efficient in tracking a number of
security issues like virus, worms, spyware, Trojan etc. As the software comes with additional
features therefore its price is slightly higher than the other software’s. The best feature about
the Kaspersky is that it is able to track even the newest threats which sometimes most of the
antivirus are unable to do. In terms of protection, this is the best software.
2. Kingsoft Antivirus – This is a different kind of software that focuses on the malware that
usually come when you are downloading anything from the internet. It also keeps you secure
from the various types of threats that may come from IM chats and other sources Thus this
antivirus is highly beneficial as most of the viruses come from downloading files through
internet only
3. Norton Antivirus – It is one of the popular and bulky antivirus that help to fight against the
numerous security issues that you have been facing in your system. In order to fully utilize the
features of Norton antivirus you will have to upgrade it to Norton Internet Security. As
compared to the other programs, it is affordable in cost and will keep the system protected too.
4. Bitdefender Antivirus – If you are looking for an excellent security solution, Bitdefender is
the first preference of the people. It is because of the simple reason that the antivirus has
advanced features to combat different kinds of viruses and spyware that can infect the files and
corrupt them. This software is known to keep your system highly secured from all kinds of
threats so that it can give faster performance and ensure the multipurpose use of the system.
5. Avast! Free Antivirus – The upgraded version of Avast is highly efficient in ensuring that
your system is protected from all kinds of threats and viruses. Using this software is quite easy
and there are a number of scan options to make sure that your system is secure. You can either
run a quick scan, full system scan, removable disk scan and lots of other options. The newly
added feature “web reputation” is quite helpful to get detailed information about the unknown
sites just to keep the system protected.

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 6. AVG Antivirus – AVG has always been a popular choice of the users when it comes to
securing their systems. The new feature of “Resident Shield” offers the facility to prevent any
unknown user from opening any file thus making sure that the files are fully secured. The
software is ideal for tracking the viruses as well as spyware’s.
7. Avira Antivirus – It is one of the most optimum software’s that is used to track worms,
malware, spyware, virus, Trojans and other sort of threats. The software can be downloaded for
free and installed to overcome the security problems in your computers.
8. Comodo Antivirus – This is one of the most effective anti viruses of all. If you are looking for
a free version of antivirus software it is just the best. It employs defense+ technology to track
as well as heal the viruses and other types of malicious programs. Though the entire process of
collecting the treats is silent but the end results will surely make you happy.
9. PC Tool Antivirus – It is software that is compatible with different operating systems
therefore can be easily installed to keep a check on the malicious programs that can harm the
files saved in your computer.
10. Microsoft Security Essentials – Using this program is very simple and regular updating
makes it strongest to track the newest spyware that have entered in your system. Despite the
fact that this is the first antivirus from Microsoft but there is no doubt that it is efficient and
compatible with a number of operating systems. It is free software and can be downloaded
from any reliable source.

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