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QUESTION NO :{1}
What is language? Briefly discuss the
origin, history, evolution and
changing aspects/ paradigms of
language.
ANSWER:

 Language:
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It
focuses on sounds, words , and structure of words,
sentences, ,meanings and grammar rules. The basic
components of Linguistics included: phonology ( the
sound system) Morphology ( the structure of words)
Syntax ( the combination of words into sentences)
semantics ( the ways in which sounds and meanings
are related) and Lexicon ( mental dictionary of
words).
When the speaker is familiar with one language,
s/he know words in that language and sounds
 units that are related to specific meanings. But the
abounds and meanings of words are arbitrary and
symbolic and nature. Therefore, here is no
relationship between the way a word is
pronounced ( or signed) and its meaning.
The knowledge of knowing a language encompasses
the entire system which is called competence
(knowing thaw language): one may know a language,
but s/he may not choose to speak it. The person is
not speaking the language , but s/he sill had the
know lead of it however, if the person doesn’t know
a language, s/he cannot speak it at all.
There are about 5,000language in the world right
now (give or take a few thousand),and linguistics
have discovered that these languages are more alike
than different from each other. There are universal
concept and properties that are shared by all
languages which forms basic for possible human
languages.
History of Language:
Language that evolves from a common sources are
genetically related. These languages were once
dialects of the same language. Earlier forms of
Germanic languages, such as German, English, and
Swedish were dialects of proto – Germanic, while
earlier forms of Romance language, such as Spanish,
French, and Latin were once dialects of Latina.
Further, earlier forms of proto- Germanic and Latin
were once dialects of Indo- European. Linguistic
change like sound shift is found in the history of all
languages, as evidenced by the regular sound
correspondences that exist between different stages of
the same languages, different dialects, and different
languages. Words, morphermes, and phonemes may
be altered, added or lost. The meaning of words may
be broaden, narrow or shift. New words may be
introduced into a language by borrowing, or by
coinage, blends and acronyms. The lexicon may also
shrink as older words become obsolete. The following
five theories about the origin of language are
considered eminent.
 The Bow +- Wow Theory:
According to this theory, language began when our
ancestors started imitating the natural sounds around
them. The first speech was onomatopoeic___ marked
by echoic words such as moo, meow, splash, cuckoo,
and bang. However, relatively few words are
onomatopoeic, and these words vary from one
language to another. For instance, a dog’s bark is
heard as au au in Brazil, ham ham in Albania, and
Wang, Wang in China. In addition, many onomatopoeic
words are of recent origin, and not all are derived from
natural sounds.
 The Ding- Dong Theory:
This theory, favored by Plato and Pythagoras,
maintains that speech arose in response to the
essential qualities of object in the environment. The
original sounds people made were supposedly in
harmony with the world around them. apart from
some rare instances of sound symbolism, there’s no
persuasive evidence, in any language, of an innate
connection between sound and meaning.
 The La – La Theory:
The Danish linguist Otto Jespersen suggested that
language may have developed from sounds associated
with love, play, and (especially) song. But David Crystal
notes in How Languages works ( penguin,2005) that
this theory fails to account for “the gap between the
emotional and the rational aspects of speech
expression.”
 The Pooh- Pooh Theory:
This theory holds that speech began with interjections
__ spontaneous cries of pain (“ouch”), surprise (“Oh”),
and other emotions (“Yabba dabs do!”). But many
languages does not contain many interjections, and,
crystal points out, “ the clicks, intakes of breath and
other noises which are used in this way bear little
relationship to the vowels and consonants found in
phonology.”
 The Yo-He-Ho Theory:
According to this theory, languages evolved from the
grunts, groans, and snorts evoked by heavy physical
labor. Though this notion may account for some of the
rhythmic features of the languages, it doen’t go very
far in explaining where words come from.
Evolution Changing aspects of
language:
 The evolution of languages is a fascinating topic that
encompasses both historical some key aspects:
1. Historical Evolution:
Languages change over time due to various factors
such as cultural shifts, contact with other
languages, and societal changes. Old forms of
languages evolve into modern versions, often
through processes like phonetic changes, semantic
shifts, and grammar evolution.
2. Technological Influence:
The advent of technology, especially the internet and
social media, has accelerated the evolution of language.
New words, abbreviations, and expressions emerge
rapidly and spread globally.
3. Societal and Cultural
Influences:
Language reflects societal values, cultural norms, and
historical events. Changes in society often lead to the
adoption of new vocabulary and alteration in language
usage.
 4. Generation Differences:
Different generation often have distinct language
preferences and usage patterns. This can lead to
linguistic innovation as younger [generation introduces
new slang and expressions.
5. Globalization:
Interconnectedness through globalization has led to
language borrowing and the integration of words and
phrases from different languages into others.
6. Standardization and
Dialects:
Languages can have standard forms that vary from
regional dialects. Standardization efforts aim to maintain
consistency, but dialects continue to evolve
independently.
7. Impact of Media and
entertainment:
Media, including TV, movies, music, and literature,
influences, language evolution by popularizing new
words and phrases.
 8. Language Preservation:
Efforts to preserve endangered languages and dialects
are crucial to maintaining linguistic diversity amidst
global homogenization.
Understanding these aspects help us appreciate how
languages evolve and adapt to meet the needs and
contexts of their speakers over time.
Changing Paradigms of Languages:
The study of linguistic change is called historical and
comparative linguistics. Linguistics identify regular
sound correspondences using the comparative method
among the cognates (words that developed from the
same ancestral languages) of related languages. They
can restructure an earlier protolanguage and this
allows linguists to determine the history of a language
family.
Old English Middle English Modern English
Old English 499-1066CE Beowulf
Middle English 1066-150CE Canterbury Tales
Modern English 1500- present Shakespeare
 Phonological Change:
Between 1400 and 1600 CE, the Great Vowel shift took
place. The seven long vowels of Middle English
underwent changes. The high vowels [i] and [u]
became the diphthongs [aj[ and [aw]. The long vowels
increased tongue height and shifted upward, and [a]
was fronted. Many of the spelling inconsistencies of
English are because of the Great Vowel Shift. Our
spelling system still reflects the way words
pronounced before the shift took place.
 Morphological Change:
Many Indo- European languages had extensive case
endings that governed word order, but these are no
longer found in Romance languages or English.
Although pronouns still show traced of the case
system ( he VS. him ), English uses prepositions to
show the case Instead of the dative case (indirect
objects), English usually the words to us for. Instead of
the genitive case, English uses the word of or’s after a
noun to show possession. Other cases include the
nominative (subject pronouns), accusative (direct
objects), and vocative.
 Syntactic Change:
Because of the lack of the lack of the cause system,
words order has become more rigid and strict in
Modern English. Now it is strictly subject – verb –
object order.
 Orthographic Change:
Consonant cluster have become simplified, such as half
becoming loaf and hence becoming neck. However,
some of these cluster are still written, but are no
longer pronounced, such as gnaw, write, and dumb.
 Lexical Change:
Old English borrowed place names from Celtic, army
religious and educational words from Latin and
everyday words from Scandinavian. Angle and Saxon
( German dialects) from the basis of old English
phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Middle
English borrowed many words from French in the
areas of government, law, religion, literature and
education because of the Norman Conquest in 1066
CE. Modern English borrowed words from Latin and
Greek because of the influences of the classics, with
much scientific terminology.
 QUESTION NO 2:
Select a long poem or a short story
[in any language of your choice],
read it carefully and transcribe it
phonemically in your own
handwriting.
ANSWER:
A short story:
“The sunsets slowly over ocean, asting a warm golden
light on the waves. A lone seagull soars overhead, its
cries echoing through the peacful evening air.”
Here is phonemic translation of the story into urdu:
Dhup nikalti hain dhire dhire samndar par, garm sone
ki roshni daalti hain leron par. Ek akela kag bhi udta
hain uper, us ki sitiyan ek shant sham ki hawa meain
goonjti hain.
Here a breakdown of the phonemic translation:
- ‘Dhup hain’ represent the sound of the ‘sun’.
- ‘Nikalti hain’ represent the sound of ‘ sets’.
- ‘dhire dhire’ represent the sound of ‘slowly
 - ‘ samandar par represent the sound of ‘ over the
oceans ‘ garm sone li roshani represent the sound
of ‘ warm golden light’
- ‘dalti hai’ represent the sound of ‘casting’
- ‘leron par’ represent the sound od ‘on the wave’.
- ‘ak aklea kag’ represent the sound od ‘ a lone
seagull’
- ‘ bhi udta hain’ represent the sound of ‘ soars
overhead’
- ‘ us ki sityan’ represent the sound of ‘its cries’
- ‘ ek shant sham ki hawa mein represent the sound
of ‘ peacful evening ait’
- ‘goonjti hain’ represent the sound of ‘ enchoing’..
A long poem:
The stars shone brightly in the mid sky,
A celestail showcase, beyond human eye.
The world was hushed, in a peaceful sleep,
As the moon glowed softly, its gentle beam to keep .
The wind whisperad secrets through the trees so tall.
And the river flowed gently, with a soothing call.
The earth was alive, with a subtle grace,
A symphony of sound in a peacful embrace.
The darkness was illuminated, by the starry light,
A celestial tapestry, of pure delight.
The world was full of wounder fulll of mystery and
might
A place of dream and magic where love take flights.
The stars shone brightly, likely diamonds in the sky, a
celestal showcase, as the world went love take fights.
The stars shone brightly, likely diamonds in the sky, a
celestail showcase, as the world went by.
The moon glowed softly, with a gentle beam so bright,
guiding us through the darkness, with a peaceful light.
Here is a phonemic translations of the poem into
urdu:

Sitare chamkte hain midnait ki asman par, ek smavi

namunish insani nazar sa age.
Dunya thi khmosh shant se so rahi th, jabke chand
niklta tha, uski narm dhyan rakhne ke lave.

Hawa keh rahi th razdane, tale darakhton ke, aur

darya bah rah tha ek shank se puakr ke., zamin th
zinda ek nuzak dastan ke sth, ek sangit ke saz, shant
sa alengan ke sth.

Andehra tha ujala, sitaroun ke nur sa, ek samvi qalim

tha, ek shandar didar ke lave, dunyia th bhapur,
bahpur ajabib ke, ak jagha dastnon ki jahan mahbbat
urte hain.

Sitare chamkte hain, hire ki tarab asman par, ek

samyai nammunsih, jabke dunya guzarti hain chand
niklta tha, uski narm dhyan rakhne ke laye, hadiyat ki
age, shant se rah dikhane ke laye.

QUESTION NO 3
To what extent do the principles
governing the structures and form of
words need to be boxed off from
other areas of grammar, and to what
extent are they symptomatic of
deeper principles which hold of the
language faculty as a whole?
ANSWER:
The principles governing the structures and forms of
words, otherwise known as morphology, are
intricately connected to other areas of grammar.
While some distinction exist for the sake of analysis,
attempting to completely isolate morphology would
create an inaccurate picture of how languages
functions. Here’s why:
1) Morphology as Building Blocks:
Morphology lays the foundation n for sentences by
providing the building blocks__ words. These words
hold meaning and grammatical information. For
example, the word “walked’ conveys the action of
walking (verb) and indicates past tense (inflection).
Without understanding how prefixes, suffixes, and
root words interact, we wouldn’t be able to decipher
the tense, plurality, or other grammatical features
embedded within words.
2) Morphology and Syntax: A
Necessary Partnership:
Morphology and syntax, the study of sentence
structure, work hand in hand. Words need syntactic
context to be interpreted correctly. Take the word
book”. As a noun, it can be the subject (“The book is
interesting”) or the object (“I read the book”).
Similarly, the verb” play” can function differently
depending on its tense and voice (active vs. passive).
Morphology provides the tools (words with specific
meaning and grammatical markings,) while syntax
dictates how those tools are arranged to create a
meaningful sentence.
3) The Interplay With Semantics:
Semitic, the study of meaning is heavily influenced by
morphology. Affixes (prefixes and suffixes) can after
the meaning of a base word. For instance, adding the
prefix”un_” to “happy” creates the antonym “unhappy”.
Similarly, the suffix”_ able” often signifies capability
( “breakable”). These examples illustrate how
morphology processes affect the semantic value of
words.
4) Morphology and Phonology:
The Sound Connection:
Phonology, the study of sounds in a language, also
interacts with morphology. Sometimes, morphology
changes can impact pronunciation. For example,
adding the past tense suffix “-ed” to “stop” can slightly
after the vowel sound. Understanding how sound
patterns influence word formation is crucial in
morphology.
Integrative Perspective :
However, many linguistic argue that morphological
principles are deeply interconnected with other areas
of grammar, indicating broader cognitive and
linguistic principles’.

Areas of Distinction:
While a strong connection exists, some areas within
grammar maintain certain distinctions from
morphology.
 Focus on Words vs. Sentences:
Morphology primarily focuses on individual words
and how they are structured. In contrast, syntax
analyzes how words combine to form sentences and
phrases.
 Focus on Form vs. Meaning:
While both morphology and semantics deal with
meanings, the focus differs. Morphology emphasizes
form and hoe it affects the grammatical properties of a
word. Semantics delves deeper into the broader
meanings conveyed by the word.
Broader Cognitive Principles:
Morphological phenomena often reflect deeper
principles of the language faculty as a whole:
 Productivity:
The ability to generate and understand new words,
reflecting cognitive flexbility and pattern recognition.
  Regularity and Irregularity:
Patterns of regular and irregular word form that
suggest underlying cognitive flexibility and pattern
recognition.
 Analogy:
The tendency to form new words based on existing
patterns, reflecting cognitive processes of analogy
and pattern recognition.
Conclusion:
The principles governing words structures cannot be
entirely separated from other areas of grammar.
Morphology provides the building blocks, syntax
dictates their arrangement, semantic interprets their
meanings, and phonology consider their sounds. These
areas interact and influence each other to create a
functional and meaningful language system. As a
whole these components works in perfect harmony,
enabling to communicate complex thoughts and ideas.
QUESTION NO 4
What is syntax? Discuss the
difference between syntactic and
morphological aspects of a language.
ANSWER:
Language is powerful tool for communication,
and syntax plays a crucial role in its effectiveness.
Syntax, often referred to as sentence structure,
governs how words are arranged to form
meaningful sentences. It’s the invisible architect,
ensuring that a string of words conveys a clear
and coherent message. Here’s a deep dive into
syntax and its relationship with morphology, the
study of structure.
Understanding Syntax:
The Rules of Order
Imagine a sentences like “The dog chased the cat” while
the individual words convey meaning, it’s the order in
which they are arranged that determines the story.
Syntax dictates the grammatical roles (subject, verb,
object) of each word and ensures the sentence is well
formed and interpretable. Here are some key aspects of
syntax:
 Word Order:
The order of words determines their function and
meanings within a sentence. English primarily relies
on a Subject – verb Object (SVO) order (‘The dog
chased the cat’). However, this order can be
manipulated for emphasis or stylistic
purposes’(Chased the cat , the dog did”). Other
languages have different dominant word orders,
highlight the flexibility of syntax across languages.
 Phrase Structure:
Syntax involves building blocks larger than individual
words___ phrases. These phrases can function as noun
phrases (the chasing dog), verb phrases (ran quickly),
or adjective phrases (very happy). Understanding how
phrases are constructed and how they combine is
crucial in syntax.
 Clauses:
Sentences can consist of a single independent clause
(‘The dog barks’) or multiple clauses linked together
(‘The dog barks while the cat naps”). Syntax dictates
how clauses are combined using coordinating
conjunctions (and, but, or) subordinating conjunctions
(because, if, although) to express complex
relationships between idea.
Morphology:
The Building Blocks of Words
Morphology, on the other hand, focuses on the internal
structure of words and how they are formed. It delves
into thee building blocks of words_ morphemes, which
are the smallest units of meaning. Here’s how
morphology operates:
 Root Words:
These are the core morphemes that carry the basic
meaning of a word (e.g, play, walk, happy).
 Affixes:
These are prefixes (added before the root) and suffixes
(added after the root) that modify the meaning or
grammatical function of a word(e.g. unplayable,
walker, happiest).
  Compounding:
Some words are formed by combining two or more
root words(e.g, bookshelf, audio book).
 The Interplay Between Syntax and
Morphology:
While morphology and syntax operate on different
levels, they are intricately connected. They work
together to create a complete and meaningful
linguistic system. Here’s how they interact:
 Morphology provides the building blocks
(words) that syntax arranges into
sentences.
Without understanding how words are formed and their
grammatical properties, it’s impossible to construct well-
formed sentences.
 Syntax dictates how morphologically complex
words functions within a sentence. :
For instance, the past tense morpheme” –ed” in “walk”
indicates past tense, but it’s the sentences structure
that clarifies its role(e.g, “The dog walked”).
  Some languages rely more heavily on
morphology to convey grammatical
information, while others depend more on
word order:
For example, Hungarian uses suffixes to mark plurality
(e.g, he’s__ house, haz`ak __houses), whereas English
relies on words order(‘the house’s, “ houses”)
Key Differences to consider:
Despite their interconnectedness some key distinction
exists between syntax and morphology:
 Focus:
Syntax focuses on the arrangement of words within a
sentence while morphology offseason the internal
structure of words themselves .
 Level of Analysis:
Syntax operates at the sentence level, while
morphology operates at the word level.
 Flexibility:
Word order rules in syntax offer some flexibility for
emphasis or stylistic purposes. Morphological rules
tend to e more rigid, although exceptions and
irregularities can exist.
 Beyond the Distinction:
The relationship between syntax and morphology
extends beyond a simple division. Here are some
additional points to consider:
 Derivational Morphology:
This area explores how new words are formed from
existing ones using derivational affixes (e.g,
unplayable, kindness), the resulting words might have
a complex grammatical structure, blurring lines
between word formation and sentences construction.
 Lexical Morphology:
This area focus on the relationship between
morphology and the mental lexicon (the mental of
words). Understanding how morphological processes
influence word meaning and storage sheds light on
how we process languages as a whole.
Conclusion:
Syntax and morphology are two essential pillars of
languages. Understanding how words are formed
(morphology) and how they are arranged into
sentences (syntax) allows us to unlock the intricate
working of language. They are not isolated domains:
rather, they interact seamlessly to create system
capable of expressing a vast array of thoughts and
ideas. By studying these areas together, we gain a
deeper appreciation for the complexity and flexibility
of human languages.
Further Exploration:
Here are some additional points to consider for a more
comprehensive understanding:
 Languages Variation:
Rules of syntax and morphology can differ significantly
across languages. Some languages have stricter word
order rules, while others have more complex
morphological systems. These variations highlight the
adaptability of language to create diverse
communication systems.
 Historical Changes:
Languages evolve over time, and syntactic and
morphological features can changes well.
Understanding historical developments provides
context for understanding how languages function
today.
 Nero linguistics:
This field explores the biological basis of languages in
the brain. By studying how the brain processes syntax
and morphology, We can gain insights into how
languages is acquired, produced, and understood.
Conclusion:
Syntax and morphology are no slated aspects of
languages, but rather two sides of the same coin. By
dealing into their interaction and their connection to
other areas like semantics( meaning) and phonology
(sound), we gain a deeper understanding of the
remarkable capacity of human languages to create,
share, and interpret complex messages.
QUESTION NO 5
Explain the following maxims of
conversation in your own words:
  Maxim of Quantity
 Maxim of Relevance
 Maxim of Manner
 Maxim of Quality
ANSWER:

The Art of Conversation:

Navigating the Maxims
Effective communication is a cornerstone of human
interaction. The philosopher H. Paul Grice proposed
four “maxims of conversation “that outline principles
for cooperative and informative exchanges. These
maxims, while not strictly rules, provide a framework
for navigating conversation and ensuring clear,
meaningful communication. Here’s breakdown of each
maxim in simpler terms:
1. Maxim of Quantity:
Say what’s needed, but not
too much!
This maxim emphasizes providing the right amount of
information in a conversation. It’s about striking a
balance between being informative and concise. Here’s
how it translates to everyday conversation:
 Be informative:
Offer enough information for your listener to
understand your point. Don’t leave them guessing
crucial details for example, if asked about your
weekend; provide a brief overview instead of a one-
word response.
 Avoid rambling:
Don’t overload your listener with unnecessary
information. Stick to topic at hand and avoid
irrelevant tangents.
 Adjust based on context:
The amount of information needed varies depending
on the situation. In a formal setting, you might provide
more details compared to a casual conversation with a
close friend.
2. Maxim of Quality :
 Be truthful, avoid misleading
information.
This maxim emphasizes honestly and credibility in
communication. it encourages us to share information
that we believe to be true and avoid falsehoods or
unsubstantiated claims. Here’s how it applies in
practice:
 Be truthful:
Base your contribution on facts and avoid spreading
rumors or gossip.
 Don’t be misleading:
Even if you’re not intentionally lying, avoid phrasing
things in a way that could be misinterpreted.
 Provide evidence (when needed):
If your statements are debatable, consider offering
supporting evidence or clarifying your stance.
3. Maxim of Relevance:
Stay on topic, contribute
meaningfully:
This maxim encourages participants to stay relevant to
the conversation at hand. It’s about making
contributions’ to the current topic and advances the
discussion.
 Stay focused:
Avoid introducing unrelated topics or derailing the
conversation.
 Connect your contributions:
Show how your thoughts or information relate to the
main topic. Use phrases like” building on what you
said….”or” This reminds me of…”
 Be mindful of the audience:
Consider who you’re talking to and tailor your
contributions accordingly.
4. Maxim of Manner:
Be clear, concise, and avoid
ambiguity:
This maxim emphasizes clarity and efficiency in
communication. It encourages us to express ourselves
in a way that is easy appropriate for your audience
and avoid jargon or verily complex terms.
 Be clear:
Use languages that is appropriate for your audience
and avoid jargon or overly complex terms.
 Be concise:
Get your piont across effectively without unnecessary
words or convoluted sentences.
 Be orderly:
Structure your thoughts logically and present
information in a way that is easy to follow.
 Avoid ambiguity:
Express yourself clearly to minimize the possibility of
misunderstanding. If needed, rephrase your
statements for better clarity.
Beyond the Rules;
The Art of Conversation
These maxims are not rigid rules, but rather guidelines
for fostering cooperative communication. There
situation where intentionally violating a maxim can be
a strategic communication tool.
 Irony and Sarcasm:
Sometimes, a well- placed saracastic remark can be
more effective than a straightforword statement.
However, using sarcasm requires understanding your
audience and the potentail for misinterpretation.
 Figurative Language:
Metaphors, smiles, and other figures of speech can add
depth and nuance to our conversations. However, it’s
important to ensure these are understood within the
context of the conversation.
The importance of context:
The application of these maxims depends highly on the
context of the conversation. In a formal setting with
colleagues, you might place greater emphasis on the
Maxim of Quality ensuring accuarcy and providing
evidence when needed. With close friends, the Maxims
of Quantity and Relevance might be more relaxed,
allowing for more informal languages and tangential
conversations.
Conclusion:
Understanding Grice’s maxims offers valuable insight
into the art of conversation. By striving to be
informative, truthful, relevant, and clear in our
communication, we can particupate in more
meaningfuland enjoyable conversations. Remember,
communicationis a two- way street, and actively
listening to your conversation partner s just as
important as following these maxims for yourself.

The end