Gen Bio Reviewer

Cell Theory

All organisms (living things) are made up of one or more cells.

The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.

All cells come from preexisting cells.

THE MICROSCOPE

• ZACHARIAS JANSSEN - Believed to be the creator of the microscope

• COMPOUND MICROSCOPE – The microscope he made

THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS

• Van Leeuwenhoek wrote letters to a scientist friend in England named Robert Hooke.
Hooke also studied objects with a microscope.

• He studied a piece of cork and noticed it was divided up into little chambers. These
reminded him of monastery cells. So, he named his discovery cells.

Next came the work of two German scientists. Matthias Schleidan was a botanist. He
used microscopes to study plants. Eventually, he realized that all the plants he looked at
were made of cells.

Meanwhile, Theodor Schwann studied slides of animal cells. He concluded that all
animals were also made of cells!

According to Matthias Schleidan and Theodor Schwann.

All organisms (living things) are made up of one or more cells.

The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.

According to RUDOLF VIRCHOW

All cells come from preexisting cells.

Common Laboratory Equipment
Parts of Microscope

-Base

Bottommost part of the microscope; supports the eentire lower microscope

-Pillar

Part above the base the supports the other part

-Inclination Point

Allows tilting of the microscope for the convenience of the user

-Arm/Neck

Curved or slanted part which is held while carryng the microscope

-Stage

Platform where objects are being examined is placed

-Stage Clips

Secure the specimen to the stage

-Stage Opening

-Body Tube

Attach to the arm and bear the lenses

-Draw Tube

Cylindrical tube on top of the body tube that holds the ocular lenses

-Revolving/Rotating Nosepiece

Rotating disc where the objective are attached

-Dust Shield

Lies atop of the nosepiece and keeps dust from setttling on the objectives

-Coarse Adjustment Knob

Geared to the body tube which elevates or lowers when rotated bringing the object into
approxiamate focus

-Fine Adjustment Knob

A smaller knob for delicate focusing bringing the object into perfect focus
-Condenser Adjustmment Knob

Elevates and lower the condenser to regulate the intensity of the light

-Iris Diaphragm Lever

Lever in front of the condenser and which is moved horizontally to open/close the
diaphragm

-Mirror

A built in illuminator beneath the stage that may be used if sunlight is no preferred or is not
available

-Ocular/Eyepiece

Another set of lens found on top of the body tube which functions to further magnify the
image produced by the objective lenses. It usually ranges from 5x to 15x.

-Objectives

Metal cylinders attached below the nosepiece and contains especially ground and polished
lenses

-LPO/ Low Power Objective

Gives the lowest magnification, usually 10x

-HPO/ High Power Objective

Gives higher magnification usually 40x or 43x

-OIO/ Oil Immersion Objective

Gives the highest magnification, usually 97x or 100x, and is used wet either with cedar
wood oil or synthetic oil

Magnification = Objective Lenses X Eyepiece Lenses

Cell Structures

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. According to cell
theory postulates, a cell is the basic building block of life, which makes anything alive and is
self sufficient to carry out all the fundamental functions of an organism.
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

•Function: Regulates the entry and exit of substances, provides cell boundary.

•Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

•Location: Surrounds the cell, separates it from the external environment

Cytoplasm:

•Function: Houses various organelles and cellular processes.

•Structure: Gel-like fluid composed of water, ions, and organic molecules.

•Location: Fills the entire cell except the nucleus

Nucleus:

•Function: Control center of the cell, contains genetic material (DNA).

•Structure: Double membrane-bound pores, contains chromatin (DNA and proteins).

•Location: Usually centrally located in the cell

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER):

•Function:

• Involved in protein synthesis and modification.

• Ribosomes on its surface synthesize proteins that are either secreted from the cell or
inserted into cell membranes.

•Structure:

• Membrane network with ribosomes attached to its outer surface, giving it a "rough"
appearance.

• It has flattened sacs or cisternae connected by tubules.

•Location:

• Typically found near the nucleus, often forming a network

throughout the cell

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER):

• Function:

• Synthesis of lipids (including phospholipids and steroids).

• Detoxification of drugs and poisons in liver cells.

• Storage of calcium ions (Ca2+), which are important for muscle contraction.

• Metabolism of carbohydrates.

• Structure:

• Membrane network similar to the RER but lacks ribosomes on its surface, making it
appear "smooth."

• More tubular in shape compared to the RER.

• Location:

• Scattered throughout the cell, often in regions where lipid metabolism or detoxification
is essential, such as liver cells

Mitochondria:

•Function: Produces ATP energy through cellular respiration.

•Structure: Double membrane-bound with inner folds (cristae).

•Location: Scattered throughout the cytoplasm

Plastids:

•Function:

• Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells and some algal cells.

• They play various roles in the synthesis and storage of important compounds.

• Plastids are involved in photosynthesis, the production of pigments, and the storage of
starch and lipids.

• Structure:

• Plastids have a double membrane similar to the nucleus, with an outer membrane and an
inner membrane.

• The inner membrane surrounds a semi-fluid matrix known as the stroma.

• Plastids contain their own DNA and ribosomes, allowing them to carry out some of their
own protein synthesis.

• They often have specialized structures within them, depending on their type and
function.

•Location:

•Plastids are primarily found in plant cells and some algal cells.

•Chloroplasts are most abundant in green plant tissues, while other types of plastids are
found in various plant structures depending on their function

Types of Plastids:

Chloroplasts:

•Function in photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy (glucose).

•Contain the green pigment chlorophyll.

•Have a system of thylakoid membranes where the light-dependent reactions of

photosynthesis occur.

Chromoplasts:

•Responsible for the synthesis and storage of pigments other than chlorophyll, giving

fruits and flowers their various colors.

•Commonly found in fruits, flowers, and some non-photosynthetic tissues.

Leucoplasts:

•Non-pigmented plastids that are involved in the storage of starches and oils.

•Found in roots, tubers, seeds, and other storage organs.

•Amyloplasts store starch, and elaioplasts store lipids

Cell Wall (in plant cells):

•Function: Provides structural support and protection for plant cells.

•Structure: Rigid outer layer made of cellulose.

•Location: Surrounds the cell membrane in plant cells

Ribosomes:

•Function: Site of protein synthesis.

•Structure: Small, spherical particles made of RNA and proteins.

•Location: Can be free-floating in the cytoplasm or bound to the rough ER

Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body):

•Function: Modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids.

•Structure: Stack of flattened membranes (cisternae).

•Location: Near the nucleus

Microbodies:

Function:

•Microbodies are small, membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells.

•They are involved in various metabolic processes, particularly the breakdown of specific
molecules and the detoxification of harmful compounds.

•Microbodies contain enzymes that facilitate these metabolic reactions.

Structure:

•Microbodies are typically single-membraned organelles.

•The enzymes contained within microbodies are specialized for particular metabolic
pathways.

•They have a characteristic crystalline or granular appearance when observed under

electron microscopy.

Location:

•Microbodies are scattered throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

•Peroxisomes, for example, are found in virtually all eukaryotic cells, while other types
like glyoxysomes may be specific to certain cell types or organisms
Cytoskeleton:

Function:

• The cytoskeleton is a dynamic network of protein filaments and tubules within the cell
that provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and is involved in various cellular
processes.

• It plays a crucial role in cell motility, intracellular transport, and cell division.

• The cytoskeleton helps anchor organelles and facilitates their movement within the cell.

Structure:

•The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of protein filaments:

• Microfilaments (Actin Filaments):

• Thin filaments made of actin protein.

• Provide mechanical support and help in cell movement

(e.g., muscle contraction).

• Involved in cell division and the formation of cell extensions like microvilli.

Structure:

•The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of protein filaments:

• Intermediate Filaments:

• Fibrous proteins that provide mechanical strength to the cell.

• Diverse in composition, depending on cell type (e.g., keratin in skin cells).

• Help anchor organelles and maintain cell shape.

Structure:

• The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of

protein filaments:

• Microtubules:

• Hollow tubes made of tubulin protein.

• Act as tracks for intracellular transport (e.g., moving vesicles and organelles).

• Form the basis of cilia, flagella, and the mitotic spindle during cell

Division
Cilia:

Function:

•Cilia are small, hair-like structures that protrude from the cell surface.

•They are primarily involved in the movement of fluids and materials over the cell surface.

•In the respiratory tract, cilia help move mucus and trapped particles out of the airways.

•Cilia in the female reproductive tract assist in moving the egg from the ovaries to the
uterus.

Structure:

•Cilia are composed of microtubules arranged in a "9+2" pattern, meaning there are nine
doublet microtubules surrounding two central single microtubules.

•They are anchored in the cell by a basal body.

Location:

•Cilia can be found on the surface of various types of cells, including those in the
respiratory tract, reproductive organs, and the lining of the fallopian tubes.

Flagella:

Function:

•Flagella are whip-like appendages used for cell movement.

•In some single-celled organisms (e.g., sperm cells), flagella help propel the cell through
fluids.

•Bacterial flagella are used for bacterial motility.

•In eukaryotic cells, such as sperm cells, the flagellum provides the motility needed for
fertilization.

Structure:

•Flagella have a similar microtubule arrangement to cilia, often in a "9+2" pattern.

•They are longer than cilia and typically occur as a single structure per cell.

Location:

•Flagella are less common in multicellular organisms but can be found in certain
specialized cells like sperm cells.
•They are also prevalent in some singlecelled organisms, such as Euglena and certain types
of algae

Centrosome:

•Function:

• The centrosome is an essential organelle in cell division (mitosis and meiosis).

• Helps in the formation of the mitotic spindle, which separates chromosomes during cell
division.

•Structure:

• The centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles embedded in a gel-like matrix called the
pericentriolar material.

•Location:

• Typically located near the nucleus, in the cytoplasm of animal cells

Centrioles:

•Function:

• They play a crucial role in organizing microtubules during cell division.

•Structure:

• Centrioles are usually found in pairs, oriented at right angles to each other.

•Location:

• Centrioles are located within the centrosome, adjacent to the nucleus, in animal cells

Vacuoles:

•Function: Store water, nutrients, and waste products; maintain turgor pressure.

•Structure: Membrane-bound sacs.

•Location: Common in plant cells, smaller in animal cells

Lysosomes:

•Function: Contain enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.

•Structure: Membrane-bound sacs filled with enzymes.

•Location: Scattered throughout the cytoplasm

Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

PROKARYOTIC CELL-DERIVED FROM THE GREEK WORD

"PRO", (MEANING: BEFORE)

AND "KARYON" (MEANING: KERNEL)-IT TRANSLATES TO

"BEFORE NUCLEI"

EUKARYOTIC CELL-DERIVED FROM THE GREEK WORD

"EU", (MEANING: GOOD)

AND "KARYON" (MEANING: KERNEL)-IT TRANSLATES TO

"GOOD OR TRUE

NUCLEI"