Atotw 523 Pocus
Atotw 523 Pocus
Atotw 523 Pocus
Edited by: Dr. Subramani Kandasamy, Senior Professor, Surgical Intensive Care Unit,
Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India
†
Corresponding author email: [email protected]
KEY POINTS
• Lung ultrasound relies on artefacts rather than direct anatomical visualization.
• It is useful in emergencies and also during the peri-operative period.
• Lung point-of-care ultrasound can evaluate pneumothorax, interstitial disease, and pleural effusion, and can assess
the diaphragmatic function.
• Protocols, such as the ‘BLUE’ protocol, detect the causes of acute respiratory failure early with 90.5% accuracy.
INTRODUCTION
Lung point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is easy, noninvasive, and inexpensive for diagnosis and monitors response to therapy
and spares radiation exposure. It results in a 76% change in the therapeutic strategy and identifies new pathology in 31% of
cases.1 Compared to chest radiography, it provides higher sensitivity and specificity in detecting pneumothorax and pleural
effusion, it better differentiates between pleural effusion and consolidation,2 and it is superior in detecting pneumonia.3
Ultrasonic assessment of the diaphragmatic function has high sensitivity (93%) and specificity (100%) in diagnosing phrenic
nerve dysfunction.4 This tutorial discusses POCUS indications, the physics of ultrasound, standard exam approach and
protocols, terminology, and pathology profiles and explores several applications of lung ultrasonography in monitoring
and therapeutic interventions.
PHYSICS OF ULTRASOUND
Due to the different acoustic impedances between air and soft tissue, most waves are reflected at the pleura of a normally aerated
lung. It is not possible to visualize normal lung parenchyma in contrast to cases of consolidation or collapse where lung tissue can
be directly visualised. Pleural effusions can be visualised by ultrasound. Normally, the pleural layers are indistinguishable, and the
hyperechoic pleural line and its artefacts are seen. A-lines are horizontal reverberation artefacts under the pleura at regular intervals,
equivalent to the distance between the pleura and the probe.5
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INDICATIONS
Ultrasound of the lung is used in intensive care, in emergency medicine, and in the perioperative settings to evaluate any acute
alteration of the respiratory status of critically ill patients. It is applied to diagnose the causes of hypoxia in patients with or with-
out haemodynamic instability. The diaphragmatic ultrasound assessment has been used over the last 25 years8 to assess
readiness for extubation, to detect neuromuscular disease, or to evaluate for potential phrenic nerve injury before and after
brachial plexus nerve blocks. The ultrasound assessment of the parasternal intercostal muscle predicts weaning success.9
A-lines Under the pleura, horizontal reverberation artefacts at regular intervals, equivalent to the distance
between the pleura and the probe.
B-lines Three or more hydroaeric comet-tail artefacts arising from the pleural line to reach the far field;
may be normal in dependent areas.
C-lines Hypoechoic subpleural comet-tail artefacts, seen in consolidation.
E-lines Irregular vertical hyperechoic lines arising from the thoracic wall; due to air trapped in the soft tissue in
cases of subcutaneous emphysema; obscures the rib shadow and pleural line below it.
Lung hepatization An indicator of substantial consolidation when lung tissue appears isoechoic to liver parenchyma.
Lung monster The atelectatic lung appears as a wedge-shaped echogenic mass within the pleural fluid
that moves with respiration.
Curtain sign A cranio-caudal movement artefact of the lung during respiration at the fully aerated base. Its
reduction or absence could be due pleural effusion, atelectasis, or basal consolidation.
Air bronchogram Aerated bronchi surrounded by fluid-filled alveoli on opaque airless lung; may be dynamic
(consolidation) or static (severe atelectasis).
Acoustic window Near-field structures that contribute to wave transmission. The liver and the spleen are basal
acoustic windows for the diagnosis of pleural effusion or diaphragmatic dysfunction.
Lung sliding Sliding of the visceral against the parietal pleura, described as ‘marching ants‘. It is absent in
pneumothorax due to intrathoracic air between the pleural layers.
Lung point A finding at the location where the pneumothorax ends and sliding is resumed.
Lung pulse Transmission of cardiac pulsation to the lung, causing the pleural line to move with the
heartbeat. This occurs if lung is not ventilated (as in endobronchial intubation) and is
absent in pneumothorax.
Seashore sign The ‘sea’ pattern is the immobile chest wall tissue and muscle layers, while the ‘sand’
pattern is the pleural sliding, maybe normally seen on an M-mode.
Barcode sign M-mode image showing uniform repetitive horizontal lines in cases of pneumothorax where lung
sliding is absent.
Spine sign The ability to see the thoracic vertebrae due to the presence of pleural effusion or
haemothorax (normally not seen through the aerated lung).
to look for conditions with increased interstitial fluid or thickness, including pulmonary oedema, COVID-19, acute respiratory distress
syndrome (ARDS), transfusion-related acute lung injury, and pulmonary fibrosis. The purpose of obtaining a coronal image at the
posterior axillary line is to visualize a pleural effusion. An anechoic collection cephalad to the diaphragm indicates pleural effusion.
The small size of the spleen makes imaging more difficult on the left side.11
PATHOLOGY PROFILES
Pneumothorax
Static plural air generates total reflection waves, resulting in the absence of lung sliding (sliding of the visceral against the pari-
etal pleura in B-mode, described as ‘marching ants’). It is absent in pneumothorax due to intrathoracic air between the pleural
layers (Figure 2). In M-mode, the barcode sign replaces the seashore sign (Figures 3 and 4). Lung sliding is also abolished in
endobronchial intubation, pleuro-parenchymal adhesions, subpleural bullae, postpneumonectomy, and after pleurodesis. Lung
sliding is therefore sensitive but not specific to pneumothorax. The lung point (a finding at the location where the pneumothorax
ends and sliding is resumed) is the most specific (100% specificity) ultrasound finding of pneumothorax (Figure 5). Hence, this
should be routinely sought in the absence of sliding to estimate the size of the pneumothorax.6
Figure 2. The upper hyperechoic is the pleural line where lung sliding occurs, whereas the lower horizontal hyperechoic line represents
an A-line. Image supplied by Hannah Kopinski (MS4) and Dr Lindsay Davis of NYU Emergency Medicine and Matthew Riscinti, Kings
County Emergency Medicine.
Figure 4. M-mode image of a normal lung showing a seashore sign. Case courtesy of Maulik S. Patel, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 61141.
Pleural Effusion
A simple effusion appears as an anechoic space between the pleural layers (Figure 6). Ultrasound can detect as little as 5 to
20 mL of pleural fluid with a sensitivity of 89% to 100% and a specificity of 96% to 100% while in a chest x-ray, this may be evi-
dent only if the volume reaches 175 to 525 mL. A large effusion can also show the ‘lung monster sign’ (Figure 7), or the ‘spine
sign’ can also be seen (Figure 8).6,11
Pneumonia
Pneumonia increases fluid content and reduces aeration in the lung parenchyma, reducing the acoustic discrepancies
between the thoracic wall and lung parenchyma. In lung consolidation, the resultant hepatisation produces heterogeneous
hyperechoic regions with irregular, variable-sized and -shaped borders (Figure 9).
Sonographic air bronchograms are caused by extreme perturbation of the air-fluid relationship in the lung parenchyma. The fluid-filled
alveoli act as an excellent acoustic medium and allow visualization of the lung parenchyma. The bronchial tree is represented by branch-
ing tubular structures, which when patent, appear to contain punctiform to linear foci. These structures may remain fixed in position
Figure 6. Image showing a right-sided pleural effusion. Case courtesy of Hani Makky Al Salam, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 13266.
(static) throughout the respiratory cycle or be observed to propagate centrifugally with respiration (dynamic). Static air bronchograms indi-
cate isolated, trapped air, diagnostic of resorptive atelectasis. Dynamic air bronchograms represent fluid mixed with air inside larger bron-
chi. They indicate nonretractile consolidation and have a specificity of 94% and a positive predictive value of 97% for consolidation
secondary to pneumonia. Using colour Doppler ultrasonography, the branching pattern of vascular flow within the consolidation can be
observed (Figure 10).6
Figure 8. A right longitudinal subcostal scan, showing a right-sided pleural effusion and a positive spine sign. Case courtesy of David Carroll,
Radiopaedia.org, rID: 65725.
Figure 10. Air bronchogram within a consolidated lung tissue presenting as echogenic branching structures. Case courtesy of G.
Balachandran, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 12505.
Pulmonary Oedema
Multiple B-lines may precede radiographic changes. These are seen on each image in different zones bilaterally. Three B-lines
with a convex probe or 6 B-lines with a linear probe is pathognomonic of pulmonary oedema. The degree of pulmonary
oedema will correlate with the number of B-lines. A reduction or disappearance of the B-lines ultrasonographically can be cor-
related with symptomatic improvement and reduction or clearing of chest x-ray changes (Figure 11).6
Diaphragm Dysfunction
The diaphragmatic function assessment is attained by measuring excursions in the subxiphoid view using a curvilinear transducer
at the M-mode during deep inspiration. Normal excursion values among men and women during quiet and deep breathing, as well
as in the sniffing test, are illustrated in Table 2 (Figures 12 and 13). In partial phrenic palsy, the sniff test shows partial hemi-
diaphragmatic paresis with a 25% to 75% reduction in caudal movement of the diaphragm (towards the transducer). In complete
phrenic palsy, a paradoxical cephalad movement or a 75% or greater reduction in movement is seen. The second method is to
Male Female
Quiet breathing 1.8 6 0.3 cm 1.6 6 0.3 cm
Deep breathing 7.0 6 0.6 cm 5.7 6 1.0 cm
Sniffing 2.9 6 0.6 cm 2.6 6 0.5 cm
measure changes in the diaphragmatic thickness during inspiration (Figure 14). This is obtained by placing the linear probe in the
ninth intercostal space at the anterior axillary line. A thickness of less than 0.2 cm at the end of expiration defines dia-
phragm atrophy. The formula used to measure the change of thickness (TFdi) at M-mode is (thickness at end-inspiration
minus thickness at end-expiration)/thickness at end-expiration. A thickening of less than 20% is consistent with
Figure 13. Quantifying the level of the diaphragmatic excursion using the M-mode during deep inspiration in a healthy female volunteer. A
dotted line between the point of the end expiratory phase to the point of the maximum inspiration gave a normal value of 5.42 cm.
paralysis. A third method is to monitor the descent of the pleural line with inspiration ‘diaphragmatic displacement’ using
a linear probe in the coronal plane at the midaxillary line to obtain a view between the seventh and eighth ribs on the right
side or the eighth and ninth ribs on the left side.4
Subcutaneous Emphysema
Subcutaneous emphysema is the accumulation of air in soft tissues, both subcutaneous and intramuscular. Air leaks
can come from nontraumatic causes or traumatic or iatrogenic injuries, such as rib fractures, airway or esophageal
trauma, gas-forming infections, or chest or endotracheal tube insertion. It can be diagnosed by the presence of soft-
tissue oedema, crepitus, and air in the thoracic wall at radiography. Ultrasonography shows subcutaneous emphysema
causing several vertical hyperechoic lines (E-lines) arising from the thoracic wall to the pleural line (Figure 16). The
E-lines at the screen margin eliminate the pleural line. Sometimes, the anterior cortex of the ribs becomes invisible,
causing the typical bat sign to be lost. It should be noticed that E-lines differ from B-lines, which originate from the pleu-
ral line. As traumatic subcutaneous emphysema is linked to pneumothorax, it should be looked for in other regions
where the pleural line is visible.6
axillary line. The BLUE protocol employs signs and correlates them with a location, resulting in 7 profiles (Table 3); each
is associated with a pathology (Figure 18).7
Figure 17. Left: The upper and lower anterior BLUE points. The diaphragm is located at the bottom of the lower hand. Right: We proceed to
scan the base of the lungs only if the scan up to this point is nondiagnostic. Adapted from Lichtenstein, Daniel A. “Lung ultrasound in the criti-
cally ill.” Annals of intensive care 4.1 (2014):1-12. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0.
Figure 18. The BLUE protocol decision tree. Adapted from Lichtenstein, Daniel A. “Lung ultrasound in the critically ill.” Annals of intensive
care 4.1 (2014): 1-12. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0.
Table 4. The Classification of Pulmonary Edema and the Establishment of Targeted Volume Management
SUMMARY
Lung POCUS is an easy and quick technique that aims to diagnose causes of respiratory failure. The BLUE protocol
examines standardized points on each hemithorax to check for certain findings, then, a pathophysiologic profile is created.
However, it is more important to examine the whole chest than to follow a certain protocol. Regarding the diaphragmatic
assessment for a possible phrenic nerve palsy associated with regional anaesthesia, it is important to take baseline mea-
sures in order to compare them with the findings after the block. It is also important to know that when we measure TFdi
and TFic as predictive tools for weaning, we should incorporate these measurements with other parameters predictive of
weaning failure.
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