Information
Information
WHAT IS COMPUTER?
• The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO COMPUTE”
means to calculate.
• A computer is normally considered to be a calculation device which can
perform the arithmetic operations very speedily.
• A computer may be defined as a device which operates upon the data.
• Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc. And it
comes in various shapes & sizes depending upon the type of computer
application.
• A computer can store, process & retrieve data as and when we desired.
• The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that many
people have started calling as “Data Processor”.
• A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and then produces
Information.
• DEFINATION OF COMPUTER
o A computer is an electronic device which takes input from the user,
processes it and gives the output as per user’s requirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computer are:
▪ Input
▪ Process Output
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Some important characteristics of the computer are as follow:
Automatic:
• Computers are automatic machines because it works by itself without
human intervention.
● Once it started on a job they carry on until the job is finished.
Computer cannot start themselves.
● They can works from the instructions which are stored inside the
system in the form of programs which specify how a particular job is to
be done.
Accuracy:
• The accuracy of a computer is very high. o The degree of accuracy of a
particular computer depends upon its design.
• Errors can occur by the computer. But these are due to human
weakness,due to incorrect data, but not due to the technological
weakness.
Speed:
• Computer is a very fact device. It can perform the amount of work in
few seconds for which a human can take an entire year.
• While talking about computer speed we do not talk in terms of
secondsand milliseconds but in microseconds. o A powerful computer
is capable of performing several billion (109) simple arithmetic
operations per second.
Diligence:
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness &
lack of concentration.
• It can continuously work for hours without creating any error &
without grumbling.
• If you give ten million calculations to performed, it will perform with
exactly the same accuracy & speed as the first one.
Versatility:
• It is one of the most wonderful features about the computer.
• One moment it is preparing the results of a particular examination,
thenext moment it is busy with preparing electricity bills and in
between it may be helping an office secretary to trace an important
letter in seconds.
THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE OF COMPUTER.
STORAGE
o The term input refers to the activities required to record data. o It’s
a process to entered data in to computer system.
o So, before we input any data, it is necessary to check or verify the
data context.
• DATA PROCESSING
o The term processing includes the activities like classifying, storing,
calculating, comparing or summarising the data.
o The processing means to use techniques to convert the data into
meaningful information.
• DATA OUTPUT
o It’s a communication function which transmits the information to
the outside world.
o After completed the process the data are converted into the
meaningful in o Sometimes the output also includes the decoding
activity which converts the electronically generated information into
human readable form.
• DATA STORAGE
o It involves the filling of data & information for future use.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY DATA PROCESSED
The computers are divided mainly three types on the based-on data
processed:
1. Analog computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid computers Analog computers:
• In Analog Computers, data is represented as continuously varying
voltage and operate essentially by measuring rather counting.
• As the data is continuously variable, the results obtained are estimated
and not exactly repeatable.
• It can able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously and also capable to
work effectively with the irrational number. E.g. 1/8 = 0.125 and
1/6=0.1666
• Voltage, temperature and pressure are measured using analog devices
like voltmeters, thermometers and barometers.
Digital Computers
• The digit computer is a machine based on digital technology which
represents information by numerical digit.
• In Digital Computers data is represented as discrete units of electrical
pulses. The data is measured in quantities represented as either the ‘on’
or ‘off’ state.
• Therefore, the results obtained from a digital computer are accurate.
• Virtually all of today’s computers are based on digital computers.
Hybrid Computers
• It combines the good features of both analog & digital computers.
• It has a speed of analog computer & accuracy of digital computer.
• Hybrid Computers accept data in analog form and present output also
in digitally.
• The data however is processed digitally.
• Therefore, hybrid computers require analog-to-digital and digital-to-
analog converters for output.
THE GENERATION OF THE COMPUTERS.
In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It provides a
framework for the growth of the computer technology. There are totally Five
Computer Generations till today. Discussed as following.
First Generation:
• Duration: 1942-1955
• Technology: vacuum tube o Used as a calculating device. o Performed
calculations in milliseconds. o To bulky in size & complex design. o
Required large room to place it. o Generates too much heat & burnt. o
Required continuously hardware maintenance. o Generates much heat
so must air-conditioner rooms are required. o Commercial production
is difficult & costly. o Difficult to configure. o Limited commercial use.
o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generation computer.
Second
Generation:
Duration:
1955-1964
• Technology: transistor o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation
system.
o Less heat than 1st generation computers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generation system. o Computers were
done calculations in microseconds.
o Air-conditioner is also required. o Easy to configure than 1st
generation computers.
• More reliable in information. o Wider commercial use. o
Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generation
computers.
Third Generation:
Duration: 1965-1975
Technology: IC chip o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation
computers. o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation
systems. o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd
generation computers. o Air –conditioner is required.
• Widely used for commercial applications. o General purpose
computers. o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are
allowed to write programs.
• Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation
computer.
Fourth Generation:
Duration: 1975-1989
Technology: Microprocessor chip o
Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor
chip.
• Smaller in size. o Much faster than previous generations. o
Minimum hardware maintenance is required. o Very reliable as
computer to previous generation computers. o Totally general
purpose computer. o Easy to configure. o Possible to use
network concept to connect the computer together.
• NO requirement of air-conditioners. o Cheapest in price.
Fifth Generation:
Duration: 1989 to Present
● Technology: ULSI
microprocessor chip. Much
smaller & handy. Based on
the ULSI chip which
contains 100 million
electronic components.
● The speed of the operations is increased. Consumed less power.
Air-conditioner is not required.
● More user-friendly interface with multi-media features.
● High level languages are allowed to write programs.
● Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous generations.
● Notebook computers are the example of 5th generation computers.
• Input Devices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the computer systems are
known as input devices.
o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of input
devices.
FUNCTION OF INPUT DEVICES o
Accept the data from the outside
worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to CPU for further processing.
• Output Devices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer are
known as output devices. o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the
example of output devices.
Memory Unit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer before the actual
processing start.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before passed to
theoutput devices. This tasks performed by memory unit.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified in the following ways:
Analogue computers
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is
continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can
say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always
such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without
first converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous
changes in physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial
or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.
Advantages of using analogue computers:
• It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous representation of all
data within the rage of the analogue machine.
• In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers for
converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
• The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It provides
insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.
Digital Computer
• It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you need it.
• You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
• Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without making
any changes in hardware
• The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
• It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
• It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
• Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature, humidity, and
other properties of its components.
Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast
like an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can
process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and
converts them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in
specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For
example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that convert the measurements of
fuel flow into quantity and price.
Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific applications.
• Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue subsystem.
• It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
• It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
• It helps in the on-line data processing.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount of data. A
supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected
processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was developed by
Roger Cray in 1976.
• It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
• It produces excellent results in animations.
• It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
• It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in NOAA's system
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any type of simple and logical data.
• It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
• It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For example, in
insurance companies.
• It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and bitcoin.
• It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in brain injuries,
strokes, etc.
• It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring the solar
system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
• It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in the
atmosphere.
Mainframe computer
• It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking sector.
• It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
• It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
• It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.
• There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any error
occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
• It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and data.
• In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order to
contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease updates.
• In the field of defense, it allows the defense departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defense.
• In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to their
courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and colleges.
• In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory management,
customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200
users at one time. Minicomputers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting
and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is
smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.
Characteristics of minicomputer:
Applications of minicomputers:
• Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two primary
functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the process, it is
detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
• Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and share data.
Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients and customers
respectively.
• Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger systems by serving as
a portal between a human operator and a central processor or computer.
PALMTOP:
DESKTOP:
Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has a faster
microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job
with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music workstation
and engineering design workstation.
• It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or professional use.
• It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
• It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
Microcomputer
Servers
a. File server
b. Database server
c. Print server
d. FTP servers
e. Application server
f. Web server
• Their sizes will depend on purpose and tasks in the network. Of course bigger and more
multitasking installations will require multiple system and storage installation.
• A common errant is that desktop systems can be used as servers. Far from it, true server systems are
specialized computers with abilities far beyond what personal computers can deliver.
• Servers are optimized to run 24 hours and are capable of hot swapping of storage and other hardware
without having to shut down the system.
Answer the following questions:
1. Differentiate between
workstation and server.
Ans:
I Server Workstation
The device which responds the services for Perform dedicated task with having
the client's request is called server. enhanced features.
I In server, Operations are internet based. In workstation, Operations are in forms of
I
Business, engineering etc.
The example of server are: FTP server, web The example of workstation are: Video
servers etc. workstations, audio workstations etc.
I
Operating system used in server are: Linux, Operating system used in workstation are:
I
Solaris server and windows. Unix, Linux or Windows NT.
In server, Graphics User Interface (GUI) is In workstation, Graphics User Interface
optional. (GUI) is installed.
The processing speed of mainframe computer is While the processing speed of minicomputer is
faster than minicomputer. slower than mainframe computer.
Minicomputer Supercomputer
Minicomputers are standalone mid-sized machines Supercomputers are most powerful computing
that fall somewhere between smaller mainframe machines on the planet and the ultimate engine of
and powerful the digital age.
microcomputers.
They have speed in the range of 10-30 MIPS. I The speed of supercomputer is in the range of
I 100-900 MI PS.
They are functional intermediate between a They are able to process trillions of
microcomputer and a mainframe computer. instructions per second.
The main purpose of the mini computer is to They are primarily used for scientific research and
fulfill the computing needs for several people forecasting along with scientific simulations, fluid
from small to medium-sized business dynamics calculation,
environment. nuclear energy research etc.
As late as the 1960s, mechanical devices, such as the Merchant Calculator have
widespread application in science and engineering. Until this period, analog
computers were routinely used to solve systems of finite difference equations arising.
However, in the end, digital computing devices proved to have the power, economics
and scalability that were necessary to deal with large scale computations, and found
universal acceptance.
Digital computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from the
hand calculator to the super computer and are pervasive throughout society.
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In 1620, an English mathematician by the name William Oughtred invented the slide
rule - a calculating device based on the principle of logarithms. It consisted of two
graduated scales devised in such a manner that suitable alignment of one scale
against the other, made it possible to perform additions, compute products etc. just
by inspection.
Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, is usually credited for building the first
digital computer in 1642. He invented the mechanical calculating machine. Numbers
were entered in this machine by dialing a series of numbered wheels. Another series
of toothed wheels transferred the movements to a dial, which showed the results.
It was only about a century later that Thomas of Colmar created the first successful
mechanical calculator which could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. A lot of
improved desktop calculators by various inventors followed, such that by 1890 a
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range of improvements like accumulation of partial results, storage of past results,
and printing of results were taking place.
The idea of using machines to solve mathematical problems can be traced at least as
far as the early 17th century. Mathematicians who designed and implemented
calculators that were capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
included Wilhelm Schickard, Blaise Pascal and Gottfried Leibnitz.
The first multi-purpose, i.e. programmable computing device was probably Charles
Babbage's Difference Engine, which was begun in 1823 but never completed. A
more ambitious machine was the Analytical Engine was designed in 1842, but
unfortunately it also was only partially completed by Babbage. Babbage was truly a
man ahead of his time: many historians think the major reason he was unable to
complete these projects was the fact that the technology of the day was not reliable
enough.
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as the Babbage Engines. The Difference Engine was constructed from designs by
Charles Babbage. These early computers were never completed during Babbage's
lifetime, but their complete designs were preserved. Eventually, one was built in
2002.
A step towards automated computing was the development of punched cards which
were first successfully used by Herman Hollerith in 1890. He along with James
Powers developed devices that could read information that had been punched into
cards, without any human help. This resulted in reduced reading errors, increased
workflow and availability of unlimited memory.
These advantages were seen by various commercial companies and soon led to
the development of improved punch-card using computers by companies like
International Business Machines (IBM) and Remington.
ENIAC
The World War II also produced a large need for computer capacity especially for
the military. New weapons were made for which
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calculating tables and other essential data were
needed. In 1942, Professors John P. Eckert and John W.
Mauchly at the Moore School of Engineering of the
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University of Pennsylvania, USA, decoded to build a high speed computer to do
the job. This was called the Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC).
It used 18,000 vacuum tubes; about 1,800 square feet of floor space, and consumed
about 180,000 watts of electrical power. It had punched cards 1/0 and its programs
were wired on boards.
ENIAC is accepted as the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer and
was used from 1946 to 1955.
EDVAC
Fascinated by the success of ENIAC, John Von Neumann, a mathematician,
undertook an abstract study of computation in 1945. In this he aimed to show that a
computer should be able to execute any kind of computation by means of a proper
programmed control. His ideas, referred to as 'stored program technique', became
essential for future generations of high-speed digital computers and were universally
accepted. The basic idea behind the stored program concept was that data as well as
instructions can be stored in the computer's memory to enable automatic flow of
operations.
Between 1947 and 1950, the More School personnel and the Ballistics Research
Laboratory of the US Army built a computer named Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC), which was based on Von Neumann's concept of
stored program.
UNIVAC
The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), developed in 1951, was the first
digital computer to be produced and was installed in the Census Bureau. The first
generation stored-program computers needed a lot of maintenance. EDVAC and
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UNIVAC fell into this group of computers and were the first commercially
available computers.
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Mid-1950s: Transistor Computers (Second Generation)
These transistors also led to developments in computer peripherals. The first disk
drive, the IBM 350 RAMAC, was the first of these introduced in 1956.
The microchip (or integrated circuit) is one of the most important advances m
computing technology. Many overlaps in history existed between microchip-based
computers and transistor-based computers throughout the
1960s. Microchips allowed the manufacturing of smaller
computers. The microchip spurred the production of
minicomputers and microcomputers, which were small
and inexpensive enough for small businesses and even
individuals to own. The microchip also led to the microprocessor, another
breakthrough technology that was important in the development of the personal
computer.
The first processors were 4-bit, but 8-bit models quickly followed by 1972. 16-bit
models were produced in 1973, and 32-bit models soon followed. AT&T Bell Labs
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created the first fully 32-bit single-chip microprocessor, which used 32-bit buses, 32-
bit data paths, and 32-bit addresses, in 1980. The first 64-bit microprocessors were in
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use in the early 1990s in some markets, though they didn't appear in the PC market
until the early 2000s.
The first personal computers were built in the early 1970s. Most of these were runs,
The Commodore PET was a personal computer in the 70s. The Altair 8800 was the
first popular computer usmg a single-chip
microprocessor. Clones of this machine quickly
cropped up, and soon there was an entire market
based on the design and architecture of the 8800.
It also
spawned a club based around hobbyist computer builders, the Homebrew
Computer Club. 1977 saw the rise of the "Trinity" the Commodore PET, the Apple
II, and the Tandy Corporation's TRS-80. These three computer models eventually
went on to sell millions.
These early PCs had between 4kB and 48kB of RAM. The Apple II was the only one
with a full-color, graphics-capable display, and eventually became the best-seller
among the trinity, with more than 4 million units sold.
The first of these was the Osborne 1, in 1981. It had a tiny 5" monitor and was large
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and heavy compared to modem laptops (weighing in at 23.5 pounds). Portable
computers continued to develop, though, and eventually
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became streamlined and easily portable, as the notebooks we have today are. These
early portable computers were portable only in the most technical sense of the word.
Generally, they were anywhere from the size of a large electric typewriter to the size
of a suitcase. The Gavilan SC was the first PC to be sold as a "laptop".
The first laptop with a flip form factor was produced in 1982, but the first
portable computer that was actually marketed as a "laptop" was the Gavilan SC in
1983.
Early models had monochrome displays, though there were color displays available
starting in 1984 (the Commodore SX-64). Laptops grew in popularity as they
became smaller and lighter.
more memory than desktop PCs had even ten years ago.
With phones like the iPhone and the Motorola Droid,
it's becoming possible to perform most of the functions once reserved for desktop
PCs from anywhere. The Droid is a smartphone capable of basic computing tasks
such as emailing and web browsing.
Mobile computing really had its start in the 1980s with the pocket PCs of the era.
These were something like a cross between a calculator, a small home computer and
a PDA. During the 1990s, PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant) became popular.
A number of manufacturers had models, including Apple and Palm. The mam
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feature PDAs had that not all pocket PCs had was a touch screen interface. Most
basic computing functions can now be done on a smartphone, such as email,
browsing the internet, and uploading photos and videos.
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Late 2000s: Netbooks (Aritificial Intelligence)
Another recent progression in computing history is the development of netbook
computers. Netbooks are smaller and more portable than standard laptops. Some
netbooks go as far as to have not only built-in Wi-Fi capabilities, but also built-in
mobile broadband connectivity options.
The Asus Eee PC 700 was the first netbook to enter mass
production. The first mass-produced netbook was the Asus Eee
PC 700, released in 2007. They were originally released in Asia,
but were released in the US not long afterward. Other manufacturers quickly
followed suit, releasing additional models throughout 2008 and 2009.
3000B.C.
Abacus is over 5000 years old. Earliest form of this device is made of wooden table which
was sprinkled with sand. Later beads were used to make calculations. This instrument is
still utilized in many parts of the world.
1617
John Napier creates a mechanical numbering device which evolved into the logarithmic
scale-based slide rule.
1623
The first mechanical calculator is invented by Wilhelm Schickard. The records of this
invention were lost in the Thirty Year' War.
1642
An adding machine is developed by the French scientist, Blaise Pascal. This machine was
a digital device with the numbers 0-9, once the sum reached the decimal place the wheel
rolled over to the next column. This machine was used to calculate the exchange rate of
national currencies.
1674
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Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnizepands on Pascal's discovery and produces a machine that can
add, subtract, multiply, and divide.
1694
Leibniz updates this machine, which now can also perform division and multiplication.
1804
The arithmometer is produced by Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar. This was the first
commercially available calculator.
1822
Charles Babbage's prototype of the Difference Engine is created. This computing machine
performed differential equations.
1834
Babbage is inspired to develop the Analytical Engine - the first digital computer. Due to a
lack of funding, this project was never completed. If it had, Babbage's invention would
have contained many of the basic elements found in modem computers. This includes an
arithmetic unit, memory for storing numbers, a punched card input/output capacity and
sequential control. Augusta Ada King was Babbage's assistant and work with him on
creating instruction routines better known as computer programs.
1847
The Mathematical Analysis of Logic: Being and Essay Towards a Calculus of Deductive
Reasoning is published. The author, George Boole, outline what is to become Boolean
algebra. Boole treats logic as a mathematical theory. This theory uses logic operators -
AND, OR, and NOT on binary numbers.
1889
1894
Hollerith patents a punched card system that use pneumatic pressure instead of
electricity and air tubes. This invention was never completed.
1896
The Tabulating Machine Company is founded by Herman Hollerith. This becomes the
International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924 after numerous mergers.
1903
An employee of Thomas Edison, Nikola Tesla, patents electrical logic circuits called
"gates" or "switches". In later machines, these will become crucial for addition,
subtraction and multiplication.
1910
A statistical engineer of the United States Census, James Powers Designed a new type of
punch card machine. This used a simultaneous punching technique which allowed the
data of an entire punch card to be entered before it was physically punched. It was a
ninety column card with round holes.
1914
1925-1930
At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Vannevar Bush creates a calculator
for solving differential equations. This is the first large scale analog computer which used
mechanical parts and electric motors.
1926
An American mathematician named Derrick Henry Lehmer developed a computer device
that could determine large prime numbers.
1928
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Th splays is invented by Vladimir Zworikin. L.J. Comrie uses punched card technology to
e calculate the motions of the moon.
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1936
"On Computable Numbers," a paper by Alan Mathison Turing is published. His theoretical
computer is named the Turing Machine. During World War II, Turing was a member of
the design team that developed a machine that would help cryptologists breaks the
German code. Konrad Zuse requests a patent for his mechanical memory design.
1937-42
John V. Atonasoff and Clifford E. Berry worked on many special purpose electronic
computers. A prototype was operational in 1939. This machine tested two central ideas
of Atonasoff's design - electronic logic circuits to perform addition/subtraction and the
use of capacitors in dynamic random-access memories.
Design work for an electromechanical computer is brought to IBM by Howard Aiken.
Work on the MARK I automatic digital computer begins. This machine is also known as the
IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC).
1938
Zuse develops the Zl, a computer that used a mechanical memory unit to perform binary
operations.
1939
The Complex Number Calculator, a relay machine is built by George Stibitz. The Model I
utilized 440 relays. The Z2, developed by Konrad Zuse, is completed.
1941
Zuse introduce the Z3, a machine that can convert decimal into binary and vice versa. It
utilized a punch film for data entry. Most likely, this was the first computer which used
program control of sequential activities.
1942
Atanasoff -Berry Computer is completed. This digital computer was capable of being
l000x more accurate than Bush's differential analyzer. The Germans used a cypher
The Colossus, a special-purpose computer was built at Bletchley Park, a British research
center. It was designed to decipher codes of the Germans.
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E project is initiated. This high speed electronic computer was developed by Robert
NI Mauchly, J. Presper Eckart and
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Model 2 is worked on by George Stibitz and the National Defense Research Committee.
It utilized paper tape and was one of the first programmable computers.
1944
Aiken's MARK I is moved to Harvard University for completion and renamed Harvard
MARK I. Primarily, it was used for defense problem solving, firing tables, logistics,
mathematical simulations and problems relating to atomic bombs. This was the first
calculator that contained a built-in stored program.
The Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator (PCRC) is produced by IBM for the United States
Army.
1946
J.W. Forrester proposes the use of digital rather than analog computing techniques for
use in the Aircraft Stability and Control Analyzer (ASCA) at MIT.
1947 John Tukey introduces the term "BIT" for binary digit.
The transistor is created at Bell Telephone Laboratories by J. Bardeen and W.H. Brattain.
It was not used as a viable alternative for the vacuum tube for almost a decade.
IBM produces the 604 Electronic Calculating Punch Machine and the 607A Calculating
1949 Punch machine.
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The s Western Automatic Computer (SWAC) are completed by the National Bureau of
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Jay Raychmen, of RCA, applies for a patent for a magnetic memory device.
The Mark III, an electronic relay machine, which was commissioned by the United States
Naval Proving Ground, is finished.
1951
The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) is the first computer developed for
commercial use. This was a first generation computer (first generation computers used
vacuum tubes as logic gates) UNIVAC I was the 1st digital computer that could work with
numerical and alphabetical information.
1952
EDVAC becomes fully operational. Its predecessor, the ENIAC, used many more vacuum
tubes and had a smaller internal memory.
Harvard Mark IV is completed.
1953
The Transistorized Airborne Digital Computer (TRADIC) is the 1st universal computer which
is entirely transistorized.
Gordon Teal, a physicist with Texas Instruments, perfects a way of making transistors out
1956 of inexpensive silicon.
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Be attain, and William Shockley, who invented the transistor, share the Nobel Prize in
ll physics.
La John McCarthy coins the term "artificial intelligence."
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IBM's 305 RAMAC, the first computer with a hard disk drive, is shipped.
1957
John McCarthy developed the LISP programming language. This language is said to
represent commonsense knowledge and becomes associated with the growing field of
artificial intelligence.
The first commercial electronic calculator using all solid state circuitry and memory is
shipped by IBM.
The first virtual memory machine, "Atlas," is installed in England.
1958
Jack Kilby invents the integrated circuit. This was a major breakthrough for the
electronics industry. It made it possible to produce computer microprocessor chips.
1959
Second generation computers are introduced by IBM. These are computers made with
transistors instead of vacuum tubes. This change made it possible to produce smaller,
faster and less expensive computers.
The world's first minicomputer is produced by DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation).
This was invented by Benjamin Curley.
1960
Model Questions
1. invented the slide rule - a calculating device based on the
principle of logarithms. (William Oughtred)
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in 1642. (Blaise Pascal,)
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4. a German mathematician
invented a calculating machine which was able to add
and perform multiplications. (Gottfried von Leibnitz,)
14. EDVAC and fell into this group of computers and were the first
commercially available computers. (UNIVAC)
• Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses, educational
institutions, research organizations, the medical field, government offices,
entertainment, etc.
• Today we can not imagine growing our technology without computers.
• The various fields where the computer is very essential are Education, Business,
Agriculture, Banking Sector and Financial Company, Medicine, Tourism,
Communication, Entertainment, and a lot more.
Application of Computer in Education
• Farmers can use computer systems to guide their vehicles and agricultural
equipment to perform specific tasks and jobs like planting and harvesting.
• Also, farmers can use GPS {Global Positioning System) to map factors and
areas that might affect crop yields, such as weed patches and wet spots.
• Smart Agriculture
Application of Computer in Banking
• Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for the design
of buildings, ships, budgets, spaceships, airplanes, etc.
• Industrial Engineering - Here computers deal with the design,
improvement, and implementation of integrated systems of people,
materials, and equipment.
• Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning cities and towns,
designing apartments and buildings using both 2D and 3D drawings.
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• Chatting
• Instant Messaging
• E-Mail
• FTP
• Video-conferencing, etc.
Application of Computer in Entertainment
• Watching Movies
• Watching Videos
• Listening Songs
• Viewing Photos
• Playing Online Games, etc.
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• Missile Control
• Nuclear Weapon Control
• Security and Army Communication
• Military Operation and Planning
• Smart Weapons Control
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Private Offices
• Budget Planning
• Sales Tax Department
• Income Tax Department
• Computation of Male/Female Ratio
• Computerization of Voters Lists
• Computerization of PAN Card
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Basic Components of PC
CPU
Memory Unit
INPUT -- OUTPU
---,.. Control Unit
UNIT T
UNIT
Examples:
Keyboard, Mouse, 1) Softcopy Devices
ALU Ex: Monitor
Light Pen,Joystick
etc., 2) Hard Copy Devices
\
\
Ex: Printer, Plotter
\ Secondaty 1
\ I
' Storage Device 1
\ I
\ Examples: /
\ Magnetic tape, Magnetic /
\\ Disks, CDs,I etc. / /
\ \... I
t
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Peripheral ..J
Devices
Computer Hardware
• System unit
contains the electronic components used to process and temporarily store data and
instructions. These components include the central processing unit, primary
memory, and the system board.
• Peripherals.
They are hardware used for input, auxiliary storage, display, and communication.
These are attached to the system unit through a hardware interface that carries
digital data to and from main memory and processors.
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• The most important component of any electronic computer is the central processing
unit. A CPU is a complex integration of millions of transistors that execute program
instructions and manipulate data.
• The Intel 10-Core Xeon houses over 2.6 billion transistors within a tiny 2-inch chip.
This ability to store a CPU on a single silicon chip ushered in the age of personal
computers.
• A processor's speed is measured in Megahertz {MHZ), or Gigahertz {GHZ). Higher the
hertz, the faster the process in of instructions
The CPU has three essential sets of transistors that work together in processing digital data:
Control Unit
The control unit directs the flow of data and instructions within the processor and electronic
memory.
Arithmetic logic Unit
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) contains programmed transistors that perform mathematical
and logical calculations on the data.
Registers/Memory Unit
The registers are special transistors that store data and instructions as they are being
manipulated by the control unit and ALU. New microprocessors also have additional
high-speed memory called cache, on the chip to store frequently used data and
instructions
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Memory
• Input and output devices of a computer system are the devices that connect
you to computer.
• Input devices let you to transfer data and user command into the
computer system.
• 1/0 devices are used to interact with the computer system.
• Output devices display the result of input data or signals after processing it.
• Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with the
outside world by moving data into and out of the computer system.
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Input Devices
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joystick
• Bar code reader
• OMR
• OCR
• Graphics tablet
• Digital Camera
Output Devices
• Monitor
• Visual Display Unit
• Projector
• Printer
• Plotter
• Speaker
Accuracy
Accuracy means the level of precision with which calculations are made and tasks
are performed. One may invest years of his life in detecting errors in computer
calculations or updating a wrong record. A large part of mistakes in Computer Based
Information systems (CBIS) occurs due to bad programming, erroneous data, and
deviation from rules. Humans cause these mistakes.
Errors attributable to hardware are generally distinguished and corrected by the
computer system itself. The computers rarely commit errors and do all types of tasks
precisely.
Reliability
Reliability is the quality due to which the user can stay dependable on the computer.
Computers systems are well-adjusted to do repetitive tasks. They never get tired,
bored, or fatigued. Hence, they are a lot reliable than humans. Still, there can be
failures of a computer system due to internal and external reasons.
Any failure of the computer in a highly automated industry is disastrous. Hence, the
industry in such situations has a backup facility to take over tasks without losing
much of the time.
Adaptability
The adaptability of a computer system means the quality of it to complete different
types of tasks: simple as well as complex. Computers are normally versatile unless
designed for a specific operation. Overall, a daily purpose computer is used in any
area of application: business, industry, scientific, statistical, technological, and so on
A general-purpose computer, when introduced in a company, can replace the jobs of
multiple specialists due to its flexibility. A computer system can replace the functions
of all these specialists because of being very versatile.
Storage
Storage is the ability of the computer to store data in itself for accessing it again in
the future. Nowadays, apart from having instantaneous access to data, computers
have a huge ability to store data in a little physical space.
A general computer system has the capacity of storing and providing online millions
of characters and thousands of pictures. It is obvious from the above discussion that
computer capabilities outperform human capabilities. Therefore, a computer, when
used rightfully, will tenfold the effectiveness of an organization.
Lack of common-sense
This is one of the major limitations of computer systems. No matter how efficient,
fast, and reliable computer systems might be but yet do not have any common sense
because no full-proof algorithm has been designed to programme logic into them. As
computers function based on the stored programme(s), they simply lack common
sense.
Zero IQ
Another of the limitations of computer systems is that they have zero Intelligence
Quotient (IQ). They are unable to see and think the actions to perform in a particular
situation unless that situation is already programmed into them. Computers are
programmable to complete each and every task, however small it may be.
Lack of Decision-making
Decision-making is a complicated process involving information, knowledge,
intelligence, wisdom, and ability to judge. The computer system does not have the
ability to make decisions on their own because they do not possess all the essentials
of decision-making.
They can be programmed to take such decisions, which are purely procedure-
oriented. If a computer has not been programmed for a particular decision situation,
it will not take a decision due to lack of wisdom and evaluation faculties. Human
beings, on the other hand, possess this great power of decision-making.