The methods of distillation

Vapour-liquid equilibrium curve shows that for binary mixture with a normal x-y
curve, the vapour is always richer in the more volatile component than the liquid
from which it is formed

This fact has been the basis of the three main methods of distillation used in

y* = mole fraction A in vapour

1.0
practice, i.e.,

 Batch (or differential) distillation,

 Flash (or equilibrium) distillation,

 and most importantly, Rectification

0 x = mole fraction A in 1.0

liquid
Rectification differs from the other two in that, in rectification, part of the vapour is
condensed and returned to the still whereas in the other methods, vapour is either
removed as such or condensed as product.

In the following sections the first two methods will be defined, but the third method
will be fully evaluated
 Batch (or differential) distillation
This is the simplest form of distillation, and is also called differential distillation or
Rayleigh distillation.
V moles of vapour to A liquid mixture is first
mvc = more
condenser with charged to a heated kettle. It
volatile
composition y of mvc
component
is then boiled slowly and the
L moles of
liquid with liquid condenser
vapour is rapidly withdrawn &
composition mixture condensed as soon as it
x of mvc
forms. The intention is to
only partially evaporate the
Heat (Q, kW) top product
mixture, because the first
Fig. 1. Differential distillation
portion of the vapour
At the end of the process, the remaining liquid
collected will be richest in the
is removed as the bottom product
more volatile component.
As this process consists of a single stage, a The vapours produced later
complete separation is impossible unless the will only dilute the
relative volatility is infinite condensate
 Batch distillation mass balance
Analysis of this process was proposed by Rayleigh

Theoretical analysis of batch distillation is based on a ‘differential mass balance’

because the liquid & the vapour phase concentrations change continuously as
distillation proceeds

Originally, a charge of L moles of components A and B with composition of x mole

fraction of more volatile component A is placed in the still. If a differential amount
of dL is vapourised; then at any given time there are (L- dL) moles of liquid left in
the still with composition (x-dx) and composition of the vapour leaving in
equilibrium is y*.

 The composition of the liquid changes from x to (x  dx), and the

amount of liquid from L to (L  dL). A material balance on A can be
made where:

the original amount = amount left in the still + the amount of vapour
 Batch distillation mass balance
 The composition of the liquid changes from x to (x  dx), and the
amount of liquid from L to (L  dL). A material balance on A can be
made where:

 the original amount = amount left in the still + the amount of vapour
xL= (x  dx)(L  dL) + y*dL (1)

 Multiplying out the right hand side

xL= xL  xdL  Ldx + dxdL + y*dL (2)

 Neglecting the term dxdL and rearranging

dL dx
= (3)
L y*  x

 Integrate Eqn (3)

 Batch distillation mass balance
 If distillation starts with F moles of feed of concentration x and
F
continues till the amount of liquid reduces to W moles (composition
=x ), Eqn (3) can be integrated to give
W

F xF 
dL dx 
 L
=  y*  x 
W xW 


 (4)
xF 
F dx 
ln
W
=  y*  x


xW 


 Eqn (4) is the basic equation of batch distillation and is called

'Rayleigh equation' 212
 Batch distillation mass balance
 The average composition (yav ) of total material distilled can be
obtained by a material balance

Fx F = Wx W +(F  W)yav (5)

 If the VLE data (x-y*) is available in a tabular form, then the RHS of
Eqn (4) can be evaluated graphically by plotting 1/(y*  x) versus x and
getting the area under the curve between x and x
F W

xF
1/(y*- x) dx
 y*  x
xW

xw xF
 Batch distillation mass balance

xF
1/(y*- x) dx
 y*  x
xW

xw xF

 The integral is the area under the curve between the two limits
x = x and x = x
F W

 To determine the value of x , the area of Eqn (4) is obtained

W
under the curve beginning at x = x and ending at x = x such
F W
F
that the area = ln
W
 Batch distillation mass balance
 If the equilibrium curve is a straight line (y=mx+c), the integration
of the RHS of Eqn (4) becomes

xF 
F dx 
ln
W
=  y*  x
 (4)
xW 


xF 
F dx 
ln =  
W (mx+c)  x
xW 

 (6)
(m  1)x +c 
F 1 F 
ln = ln
W m  1 (m  1)x +c 
W 

 Batch distillation mass balance
 If the relative volatility is constant over the range considered, and
thus substituting the volatility equation, y= x/(1+(  1)x) into
Eqn (4):
xF
F dx
ln
W
=  y*  x
xW

xF 
F dx 
ln =  
W x
xW x 
1+(  x)x 

 (7)
x (1  x ) (1  x ) 
F 1 W 
ln = ln F W +ln
W (  1) x (1  x ) (1  x ) 
W F F 


 Example
 A mixture of 100 mols containing 50 mol % n-heptane (A) and
50 mol % n-octane (B) is distilled under differential conditions at
101.3 kPa until 60 mols of liquid is distilled. What is the composition
of the liquid left and the average composition of the total vapour
distilled? The equilibrium data is as follows:

x 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.32

y* 0.689 0.648 0.608 0.567 0.523 0.497
 Solution
 The given values to be used in Eqn (4) are

F = 100; x = 0.50; V (moles distilled) = 60  W = 40

F

 Substituting the values into Eqn (4)

xF
F dx
ln
W
=  yx
xW
x F = 0.5
100 dx
ln
40
= 0.916 =  yx
xW
 Solution
 The unknown is x , the composition of the liquid W at the end
W
of the differential distillation. There is need for graphical integration
 To do the graphical integration, a plot of 1/y*  x versus x is made

x 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.32

y* 0.689 0.648 0.608 0.567 0.523 0.497
1/y*  x 5.29 5.32 5.32 5.35 5.50 5.65

 x values are plotted on the x-axis against 1/y*  x on the y-axis.

 To determine the value of x , the area of Eqn (4) is obtained under

W
the curve beginning at x = 0.50 to x such that the area = 0.916.
F W
Hence, x = 0.33
W
 Solution
 The average composition of the 60 mol distilled is obtained using
Eqn (5)

 Fx = Wx +(F  W)y (5)

F W av

100(0.50)= 40(0.33)+(100  40)yav

 y av = 0.614
Flash (or equilibrium) distillation[see constant temp VLE]
A solution in a closed container at W is entirely a liquid; if the pressure is reduced
at constant temp, the first bubble of vapour forms at U; complete vapourisation
occurs at S; and further reduction in pressure results in a superheated vapour as
at R

P Liquid curve
W
U
P1 T
V Vapour
S curve

0 x1 y1 1.0

Fig. 6. Pressure composition diagram

221
Flash (or equilibrium) distillation
If a sufficiently hot liquid mixture is throttled into a vessel, part of it will vaporize

The vapour produced will be richer in the more volatile component(s) & thus
partial separation of the desired component(s) will be achieved

 The feed is first heated in a heat exchanger under pressure & then led to a
flash drum by throttling where partial vapourisation of the feed occurs under
reduced pressure

 The vapour is allowed to come to equilibrium with the residual liquid, and the
resulting vapour and liquid phases are then separated
Vapour, V, y*

feed at P1 heat P2
F, xF exchanger

Q (kW) top
product, Fig. 2. Flash
D,xD distillation
P1 > P2 Liquid, W, xW
 Flash distillation mass balance
 Consider a binary system having a more volatile component A
 Let the flow rate & the composition of the feed, the condensed top
product (distillate) and the bottom liquid product be denoted as
(F, x ), (D, x ), and (W,x ), respectively
F D W

 The vapour leaving the flash chamber is condensed into a liquid. So its
composition is denoted by x . The subscript D stands for distillate.
D

 Total material balance:

F=D+W (8)

 Component A balance:
Fx = Dx + Wx (9)
F D W
 Flash distillation mass balance
 Substitute Eqn (8) into Eqn (9) by eliminating W and rearrange

F xD  xW
= (10a)
D xF  xW

F  F 
x = x    1 x (10b)
D D F D  W

 But x D = y*
F  F 
 y* = x    1 x (10c)
D F D  W

 Eqn (10c) represents a straight line with slope of -(F  D)/D =  W/D
The values of x and x can be obtained from Fig.3.
W D
Flash distillation mass balance

1.0
Slope = -W/D
xD

xW xF 1.0
x

Fig. 3. Flash distillation

 Example
 A mixture of 40 mol % benzene & 60 mol% toluene is being flash
distilled at a rate of 10 kmol/h at 1 atm total pressure. The liquid
product should not contain more than 30 mol% benzene. Calculate
the amounts & compositions of the top & bottom products. The
relative volatility of benzene in the mixture is 2.5. Solve analytically
as well as graphically
 Algebraic solution
 Data given: F =10; x = 0.4; x = 0.3
F W
Total material balance:
10 = D + W (i)

Component A balance:
10(0.4) = Dx + W(0.3) (ii)
D

 In equilibrium flash distillation, the distillate (vapour) & the bottom

products (liquid) are in equilibrium, i.e., x &x are in equilibrium
D W
& are related through the relative volatility as follow
x /(1  x )
D D =2.5 (iii)
x /(1  x )
W W
 Eqns (i),(ii) & (iii) can be solved for the 3 unknowns to get
D = 4.61; W = 5.39 mol/h; x = 0.517 227
D
 Graphical solution
 The equilibrium line is plotted using the given value of the relative
volatility

x
y=
1+( -1)x

2.5x
 y=
1+(2.5-1)x

 The point F (x ,x ), i.e., (0.4,0.4) is located on the diagonal, & the

F F
vertical line thru x = 0.3 meets the equilibrium point D(0.3,0.52).
W
The slope of the line FD equals (  W/D).

228
Graphical solution

1.0
Slope = W/D
D
xD

y F

xW xF 1.0
x

Fig. 3. Flash distillation

229
Rectification (or Fractional Distillation)
In the two processes outlined previously, the vapour leaving the still at any time is
in equilibrium with the liquid remaining, and there will normally be a small increase
in concentration of the more volatile component

The essential merit of rectification is that it enables a vapour obtained that is

essentially richer than the liquid left in the still.

This is achieved by an arrangement known as a fractionating column which

enables successive vapourisation and condensation to be accomplished in one
unit

Fig 4. is a schematic arrangement of the fractionating column

Rectification (or Fractional Distillation)
Condenser

y6 Reflux divider
rectifying system Tray 6
(above the feed) Reflux, Distillate,
Tray 5 R D
Feed
Tray 4
Tray 3 Liquid
stripping system
(below the feed) Tray 2
Vapour
ys Tray 1
Steam xs

Bottom product,
Fig. 4. Fractionating column W

The operation of a fractionating column may be followed by reference to Fig.4.

The column consists of a cylindrical structure divided into sections by a series of
perforated trays which permit upward flow of vapour.
Rectification (or Fractional Distillation)
The liquid reflux flows across each tray, over a weir or down-comer to the tray
below. The vapour rising from the top tray passes to a condenser and then to a
reflux divider where part is withdrawn as product D and the remainder returned to
the top tray as reflux R

The liquid in the base of the column is frequently heated, either by condensing
steam or by a hot oil stream, and the vapour rises through the perforations to tray
1. A more commonly used arrangement is the external reboiler. Here the liquid
from the still passes into the reboiler where it flows over the tubes and weir and
leaves as the bottom product W; the more volatile material returns as vapour to
the still. Vapour of composition ys enters tray 1. This operation of partial
vapourisation of the liquid reflux is repeated on each tray. Therefore, the rising
vapour stream gets progressively richer in the more volatile component, and the
falling liquid progressively richer in the less volatile component; enhancing the
separation efficiency. Vapour of composition y6 from the top tray is condensed to
give the top product D and the reflux R both of the same composition y6
Rectification (or Fractional Distillation)
The feed stream is introduced on some immediate tray where the liquid has
approximately the same composition as the feed

The part of the column above the feed point is known as the rectifying section; the
lower part is known as the stripping section

On an ideal tray, the vapour rising from it will be at equilibrium with the liquid
leaving it, though in practice a small degree of enrichment will occur

On each tray the system approaches equilibrium because:

 some of the less volatile component condenses from the rising vapour into the
liquid thus increasing the concentration of the more volatile component (mvc)

 some of the mvc is vapourised from the liquid on the tray thus decreasing the
concentration of the mvc in the liquid

A complete unit will normally consist of a feed tank, a feed heater, a column with
reboiler, a condenser, an arrangement for returning part of the condensed liquid
as reflux, and coolers to cool the two products before returning them to storage
Determination of the number of trays (or plates)
The first step in designing a distillation column is to find the number of plates or
trays needed to carry out an effective distillation according to the system
conditions

Material and energy balances over the trays, the reboiler and condenser must be
established. They provide the operating line or mathematical description of the
concentrations of the components at any time during the operation.

Equilibrium data that characterises each stream is also essential

The required column diameter is also selected such that it can accommodate the
flowing streams with ‘reasonable’ pressure drop and performing the desired
degree of mixing of the streams on each tray

Fig.5 shows the streams involved around a particular plate. It is important at this
stage to adopt a notation system for streams and tray numbers. Streams and their

constituents are named after the tray they leave, i.e., L1, V1, y1, x1 describe the
streams that exit tray 1
 Determination of the number of trays (or plates)
Vn+1
Plate n+1

Vn Ln+1
Plate n Fig. 5. Material
Vn-1 Ln balance over a plate

Plate n-1
Ln-1
Four streams are involved in the transfer of heat and material across each plate

 plate n receives liquid Ln+1 from plate n+1 above, and vapour Vn-1 from plate
n-1 below

 plate n supplies liquid Ln to plate n-1, and vapour Vn to plate n+1

Ideally equilibrium is approached at each stage and is between the two streams
exiting (or leaving) the plate, namely Ln and Vn. The degree of departure from
equilibrium is recognised as the stage efficiency, i.e., if a stage or plate is 70%
efficient it means it is 70% towards equilibrium
 The Lewis-Sorel method

III
VT I
Ln+1 D
n+1 xD
Vn n
F Lm+1
xF Vm m+1
m
II

W
xw

Fig. 6. Material balance, top, bottom & overall

236
 The Lewis-Sorel method
 Suppose a unit is operating as shown in Fig.6, so that a binary feed
F is distilled to give a top product D and a bottom product W, with
x , x and x as the corresponding mol fractions of the more
F D W
volatile component in the liquid phase

 Loop I: Material balance for plate n, above the feed point gives
V =L +D (11)
n n+1

Material balance on the more volatile component gives

V y =L x + Dx (12)
n n n+1 n+1 D

L D
 y = n+1 x + x (13)
n V n+1 V D
n n
 The Lewis-Sorel method
 Eqn (13) is called the top operating line. It gives the relationship
between the composition of the vapour rising from plate n and the
composition of the liquid entering the same plate

 Assuming that the molar rate of overflow of the liquid from one plate
to another is constant over any section, L may replace L ,
n n+1
thus
L D
y = n x + x (14)
n V n+1 V D
n n

 Similarly, taking a material balance for the total streams and for the
more volatile component in a plate m below the feed, and assuming
that L is constant, i.e., L =L
m m m+1
 The Lewis-Sorel method
 Loop II: Material balance for plate m, below the feed point gives
L = Vm + W (15)
m+1

Material balance on the more volatile component gives

V y =L x  Wx (16)
m m m+1 m+1 W

 Assuming the constant liquid molar flow rate, L =L , thus

m m+1

Lm W
ym = x m+1  xW (17)
Vm Vm

 Eqn (17) is called the bottom operating line since it describesthe

conditions below the feed point. It gives the relationship between
the composition of the vapour rising from plate m to the composition
of the liquid falling on the same plate
 The Lewis-Sorel method
 In order to calculate the change in composition from one plate to
the next, two sets of data are required:

Equilibrium data: In order to find the relationship between the

compositions of the vapour and liquid streams y and x ,
K K
respectively, both leaving a plate K. K denoted as n for plates above
the feed and m for plates below the feed

Operating line: In order to find the relationship between the vapour

composition y leaving the plate to the liquid composition x
K K+1
entering the plate (K could be either n or m depending on its position
in the column)
 Example
A mixture of benzene and toluene containing 40% of benzene is to be separated
to give a product of 90 mol% of benzene at the top, and a bottom product with not
more than 10 mol % of benzene. The feed is heated so that it enters the column
at its boiling point, and the vapour leaving the column is condensed, but not
cooled, and provides reflux and product. It is proposed to operate the unit with a
reflux ratio of 3 kmol/kmol product. You are required to find the number of
theoretical plates needed and the position of entry for the feed. The vapour-liquid
equilibrium data for benzene-toluene at 101.3kPa is given below:

xB 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 0.950

yB 0.208 0.372 0.507 0.612 0.713 0.791 0.857 0.912 0.959 0.980
 Solution
 Considering 100 kmol of feed, a total material balance gives
100 = D + W

 A balance on the mvc (benzene) gives

100x0.4 = 0.9D + 0.1W
Thus,
40 = 0.9(100  W )+ 0.1W
Hence,
W = 62.5 kmol, and D = 37.5 kmol

 Using the notation from Fig. 5, and that reflux ratio, R = Ln/D = 3
L = 3D = 3 x 37.5 = 112.5 kmol
n
And,
V =L + D = 150 kmol
n n
 Solution
 Thus, the top operating line from Eqn. (14) is,
L D
y = n x + x (14)
n V n+1 V D
n n

112.5 37.5
yn = x n+1 + (0.9)
150 150

y = 0.75x + 0.225 (top operating line) (18)

n n+1

 Since the feed is all liquid at its boiling point, it will run down as
increased reflux to the plate below.

Thus,
L = L +F
m n
= 112.5 + 100 = 212.5 kmol
 Solution
 Also,
V = L  W
m m
= 212.5  62.5 = 150 = Vn

212.5 62.5
 ym = x m+1  (0.1)
150 150

y m =1.415x  0.042 (bottom operating line) (19)

m+1
 Solution
Refer to Fig E1
 With the top and bottom operating lines and the equilibrium curve,
the composition on the various plates can be calculated, either by
working from still-pot up to condenser, or in the reverse direction.
Since all the vapour from the column is condensed, the composition
of the vapour y from the top plate must equal that of the product
T
x , and that of the liquid returned as reflux x . The composition
D R
x of the liquid on the top plate is found from the equilibrium
T
curve,

y = 0.90, x = 0.79
T T

245
 Solution

Fig. E1. Calculation of the number of plates by the Lewis–Sorel method

 Solution
 The value of y is obtained from top operating line, Eqn (18),
T-1
using the known parameters

y = 0.75x + 0.225
T-1 T
= 0.75(0.79) + 0.225
= 0.818

From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.644

T-1

 From operating line, y = 0.75(0.644) + 0.225

T-2
= 0.708
From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.492
T-2

247
 Solution
 From operating line, y = 0.75(0.492) + 0.225
T-3
= 0.594
From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.382
T-3

 The value of composition of x is sufficiently close to the feed to

T-3
be introduced on plate x . Hence for the lower part of the column,
T-3
the bottom operating line, Eqn.(19) will be used

 From bottom operating line, y = 1.415x - 0.042

T-4 T-3
= 1.415(0.382) - 0.042
= 0.498
From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.293
T-4

248
 Solution
 From operating line, y = 1.415(0.293) - 0.042 = 0.379
T-5
From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.208
T-5

 From operating line, y = 1.415(0.208) - 0.042 = 0.252

T-6
From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.12
T-6

 From operating line, y = 1.415(0.12) - 0.042 = 0.127

T-7
From equilibrium, x is obtained as 0.048 < x W
T-7

 The liquid composition is slightly below the minimum composition

required and may be withdrawn as the bottom product.
Thus x will correspond to the reboiler and there will be seven
T-7
plates required 249
 The method of McCabe and Thiele
 In order to facilitate distillation calculations, simplifying
assumptions have been proposed such as constant heat of
vapourisation across all stream compositions, negligible heat of
mixing and no heat losses. This resulted in constant molar reflux in
any section of the column, i.e., V =V ,L =L , etc.
n n+1 n n+1

 Using these simplifications the two operating lines obtained were

L D
y = n x + x (14)
n V n+1 V D
n n

L
m x W
y =  x (17)
m V m+1 Vm W
m
 The method of McCabe and Thiele
 McCabe and Thiele pointed out that, since these equations
represent straight lines relating y to x and y to x , they
n n+1 m m +1
can be drawn on the same diagram as the equilibrium curve to give
a simple graphical solution for the number of stages required.

 In other words the McCabe-Thiele methods is based on the same

principle as the Lewis-Sorel method, but uses the graphical approach
 Example
 The previous example will now be worked using the McCabe-Thiele
method
 Thus, with a feed composition x of 0.4, the top composition x is
F D
to have a value of 0.9 and the bottom composition x of 0.1. The
W
reflux ration L /D = 3
n
 Solution
Refer to Fig E2
(1) Do a material balance for a feed of 100 kmol
V =V = 150 kmol; Ln = 112.5 kmol;
n m
D = 37.5 kmol; W = 62.5 kmol

(2) Using the vapour-liquid equilibrium data, draw the equilibrium

curve and the diagonal line

(3) The eqn of the top operating line is y = 0.75x + 0.225

n n+1
Thus line AB is drawn through the two points A (0.9,0.9) and
B (0,0.225)

(4) The eqn of the bottom operating line is y = 1.415x - 0.042

m m+1
This equation is represented by line CD drawn through C (0.1,0.1)
at a slope of 1.415
 Solution

Fig. E2. Calculation of the number of plates by the McCabe -Thiele method
 Solution
(5) The number of equilibrium trays is determined by step or staircase
construction between the equilibrium curve & the operating line.
The point (x n ,y n ) lies on the equilibrium curve where as the point
(x n+1,y n ) lies on the operating line. Construction may start from
either end,i.e., from A (top tray) or C (bottom tray)

 Starting at point A, draw the horizontal line to cut the equilibrium

curve at point 1. Drop the vertical line through 1 to cut the top
operating line at 2. Proceed in this way to obtain points 3 - 6

(6) Draw horizontal line through 6 to cut equilibrium curve on point 7,

and vertical line through 7 to lower enrichment line at point 8.
Proceed to get points 9 - 16.
 Solution
(7) Count the number of stages, i.e., points 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 which
gives the number of plates as 7

(8) Usually the rebolier partly vaporizes the liquid from the lowest
tray. Because equilibrium vaporisation in the reboiler is quite
a reasonable assumption, the reboiler acts as a tray.

 The number of ideal trays in the construction is 7 including the

reboiler, i.e., 6 number of trays and a reboiler are required for the
desired separation

256
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
As the feed enters the column, the liquid and vapour flow rates undergo step
changes depending upon the state of the feed (i.e., upon how much liquid and
vapour it has) – see Figure 8

Write the material & energy balance L,HL, f+1 V,HV, f

equations over the plate (f) to which the

feed is introduced F, xF, HF f
The feed plate along with related flow,
composition & enthalpy terms are given L,HL,f V,HV,f-1
in Figure 7.
Fig. 7. The feed plate
 Total material balance:
F + L + V= L + V (20)
 Energy balance:
FH F + LH L,f+1 + VH V,f-1 = LH L,f + VH V,f
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
 Energy balance:
Assume that the change in ethalpy of a phase as it passes through
the feed plate is small.
i.e., H L,f+1  H L,f  H & H V,f-1  H V,f  H
L V
 FH F + LH L + VH V = LH L + VH V

(L-L)H L =(V-V)H V + FH F (21)

 From Eqn (20) & (21)

(L-L)H L =(L-L-F)H V + FH F = (L-L)H V +F(H F -H V )
(L - L)(H L - H V )= F(H F -H V )

(L  L) (H F  H V ) (H V  H F )
= = =q
F (H L  H V ) (H V  H L )
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
But:
L =Lm , and L = L n

(L m  L n ) (H F  H V ) (H V  H F )
 = = =q (22)
F (H L  H V ) (H V  H L )

 In words, the 'quantity' q is

(liquid flow rate below feed plate)  (liquid flow rate above feed plate)
q= (22A)
feed flow rate

(vapour enthalpy on feed plate)  (feed enthalpy)

q= (22B)
(vapour enthalpy on feed plate)  (liquid enthalpy on feed plate)
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)

 But
L m  L n  increase in the liquid flow rate across the feed tray as a
result of inroduction of the feed = rate of input of liquid with the feed.
 q is the fraction of liquid in the feed

 Since there are only small composition changes across the feed plate
H V is basically the molar enthalpy that the feed would have if it
were saturated vapour; while H L is basically the molar enthalpy that
the feed would have if it were a saturated liquid.

 Therefore, the quantity q in Eqn (22) is the energy required to convert

1 mole of feed from its condition H to saturated vapour, divided by
F
the molar latent heat of vapourisation of the saturated liquid (H V  H L )

260
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)

 on the basis of Eqn (22), the quantity q may be expressed as

heat required to convert 1 mole of feed to saturated vapour

q= (23)
molar heat of vapourisation of the saturated liquid

 (1) If feed is liquid at bubble point, q =1

(2) If feed is vapour at dew point, q =0
(3) If feed is two-phase mixture, q represents fraction of liquid in it
(4) So (1-q ) gives a measure of the quality of the feed

261
The feed line (or condition of the feed)

Fig. 8. Flow through feed plate for various feed conditions

262
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
At the plate where the feed is admitted, the liquid rate or the vapour rate or both
may change, depending on the thermal condition of the feed.

Figure 8 shows diagrammatically the liquid and vapour streams into and out of the
feed plate for various feed conditions.

In Fig 8(a), cold feed is assumed and the entire feed stream adds to the liquid
flowing down the column. In addition, some vapour condenses to heat the feed to
the bubble point; this makes the liquid flow even greater in the stripping section
and decreases the flow of vapour to the rectifying section

 Lm = F + Ln + condensed vapour

In Fig 8(b), the feed is assumed to be liquid at its boiling point. No condensation is
required to heat the feed, so Vn = Vm and Lm = F + Ln

If the feed is partly vapour, as shown in Fig 8(c), the liquid portion of the feed
becomes part of L and the vapour part of the feed becomes part of V.
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
If the feed is saturated vapour, as shown in Fig 8(d), the entire feed becomes part
of V. So Ln = Lm and Vn = F+ Vm

Finally, if the feed is superheated vapour, as shown in Figure 8(e), part of the
liquid from the rectifying column is vapourised to cool the feed to a state of
saturated vapour. Then the vapour in the rectifying section consists of (1) the
vapour from the stripping section, (2) the feed, and (3) the extra moles vapourised
in cooling the feed. The liquid flow to the stripping section is less than that in the
rectifying section by the amount of additional vapour formed

 Vn = F + Vm + vapourised liquid
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
 By comparing Eqn (22) with Fig 8 (b) we see that q = 1, if the feed
 (L m -L n ) (L-L) 
is a saturated liquid.  F = = q (Eqn. 22) 
 F 
Similarly q = 0, if the feed is a saturated vapour  Fig 8 (d) .

 For feeds that are sub-cooled liquids or superheated vapours, we

need a more complete energy balance

 For feed of sub-cooled liquid we recognise that

 energy supplied by  energy needed to heat the liquid feed 

 condensation    to its saturation 
   

265
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)

 More specifically,

 moles of vapour   heat of   moles   heat capacity per 

condensed   vapourisation     of feed   mole liquid C  x
     PL 
 bubble temp TB  feed temp TF 

 Rearranging the expression above,

moles of vapour condensed CPL (TB  TF )

 (24)
moles of feed 

266
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
 From the definition of q, we know
 (L m -L n ) (F+L n + condensed vapour -L n ) 
 q  = 
 F F 
moles of feed + moles of vapour condensed
q (25)
moles of feed

 Combining Eqn (24) and (25) we obtain the desired result for the
sub-cooled liquid feed as

C (T -T )
q =1+ PL B F (26)
λ

 Note also that when the feed temperature in Eqn (26) equals the
temperature at the bubble point, q =1, consistent with the earlier
expectation
267
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
 For superheated vapour feed
We obtain similar results by arguments that are completely parallel.
The results is

CPV (TD -TF )

q= (27)
λ

 where
CPL , CPV = specific heats of liquid and vapour, respectively
TF = temperature of feed
TB , TD = bubble point and dew point of feed, respectively
λ = latent heat of vapourisation

268
 The feed line (or condition of the feed)
 The above Eqns (26) and (27) suggest that q can be defined as the
heat required to vapourise one mole of feed (to reach bubble or
dew point) divided by the molar latent heat of vapourisation - compare
with Eqn (23)

 In Eqn (27) because for a superheated vapour, the feed temperature

is greater than the temperature at the dew point, q is negative for this
case.
However, when the feed is a vapour fed at saturation, TF = TD and
q = 0, again consistent with the qualitative argument above
(see Fig 8.d & e)

269
 Equation of the feed line
 The point of intersection of the two operating lines (rectifying and
stripping section) must satisfy Eqn (14) & (17)

 If the point of intersection is (x,y)

V y =L x + Dx (28)
n n D

V y =L x - Wx (29)
m m W

 Also, component balance for the whole column gives

Fx F =Dx D +Wx w (30)
where x F is the concentration in the feed of the more volatile
component
270
 Equation of the feed line
 Subtracting Eqn (29) from Eqn (28) & using Eqn (30) gives

(Vn -Vm )y=(L n -L m )x + (Dx +Wx ) = (L n -L m )x + Fx (31)

D W F

 Dividing both sides of Eqn (20) by F, then simplifying, & using the
definition of q given by Eqn (22) Remember:
F+L+ VL+V (20)
Vm  Vn Lm  Ln
1 q (32) Vm  Vn  F  L m  L n
F F

 Dividing both sides of Eqn (31) by F & using Eqn (32) results

-(q  1)y = -qx+x

F

q x
y= x F (33)
q-1 q 1 271
 Equation of the feed line
 Eqn (33) represents a straight line on the xy diagram passing through:

(1) the point (x F ,x F ) on the diagonal

(2) the point of intersection of the top and bottom operating lines

 The line has slope q/(q-1), where q is the quality of the feed as stated
before
 Since the line given by Eqn (33) is completely described by the state
(quality) & concentration of the feed, it is called the feed line or q-line

 The stripping section operating line can be drawn with the help of
the feed line
(1) the top operating line & feed line are drawn on the x-y plane & their
point of intersection can be located. (2) The line joining this point
of intersection & the point (x W ,x W ) is the bottom operating line
 Plot of the feed line (or q-line)

1.0
Slope=q/(q-1)

Equilibrium curve

y = x line
y xF
q-line (or feed line)

xF 1.0
x

Fig. 9. Plot of q-line

273
 Plot of the top, bottom and q-line

1.0
xD

top operating line

y = x line
y xF
q-line (or feed line)

xW

xF bottom operating line

xW 1.0
xD
x

Fig. 10. Plot of top, bottom & q-line

274
 Characteristics of the feed line
The relationship between the value of q, the slope of the feed line and the
condition of feed is given below:

Cold feed as liquor q>1 q-line

Feed at boiling point q=1 q-line

Feed partly vapour q<1 q-line

Feed saturated vapour q=0 q-line

Feed superheated vapour q < 0 q-line

Fig 11 illustrates the feed line with regards to the feed conditions. Graphically, it is
a straight line with a slope of slope [q/(q-1) ] passing through two main points;
namely (xF, xF) and the point of intersection between the top and bottom
operating lines
 Characteristics of the feed line

Fig. 11. Effect of the condition of the feed on the intersection of the
operating lines for a fixed reflux ratio
 Reflux ratio
 Reflux ratio (R) is a measure of how much of the material going
up the top of the column is returned back to the column as reflux

R is the ratio of reflux flow (L) to distillate flow (D)

L
R= (34)
D

 The external reflux ratio, L/D, is often a parameter that is specified

for column operation since it is perhaps the easiest to change under
column operation and changing L/D often has a substantial effect on
the overall column behavior and separation.

277
 Reflux ratio

 There are two limiting conditions with respect to the reflux ratio, L/D,
that one obtains:
(1) Total reflux ratio, D = 0, L/V = 1, and L/D  
(2) Minimum reflux ratio, (L/D) min

 One will often see an external reflux specification as a multiple of

the minimum reflux ratio, for example, L/D = 2(L/D) min , etc.

278
 The importance of reflux ratio
 The reflux ratio (R) enables the equation of the top operating line
to be expressed in another way, which is often more convenient.
Thus introducing R into Eqn (14)

L D
y n = n x n+1+ xD (14)
Vn Vn

Remember:
 But, Vn = L n + D, for constant liquid molar flow Material balance of
the rectifying section

Ln D
 yn = x n+1+ xD (35)
L n +D L n +D

 Dividing by D on top and bottom quantities

R x
yn = x n+1+ D (36)
R+1 R+1 279
 The importance of reflux ratio
 If R is known, the top line is most easily drawn by joining
points (x D , x D ) to (0, x D /(R+1)).

 This method avoids the calculation of the actual flow rates when
only the number of plates is required

 From Eqn (36) any change in R will, therefore, modify the slope
of the operating line (Fig. 12), and will alter the number of plates
required for a given separation

280
 The importance of reflux ratio
Enrichment line for minimum reflux
xD with infinite number of stages
A
Mole Fraction C6H6 in vapour, y

G
q-line
xD
E
yF
K
xF Enrichment line for total reflux
with minimum number of plates

B xF

Mole Fraction C6H6 in liquid, X

Fig. 12. Influence of reflux ratio on the number of plates required for a given separation
281
 Total reflux ratio

XD

D=0
1
R=L/D = ∞
L/V=1

F=0

Nmin

XW
W=0

Fig. 13. Total reflux ratio 282

 Total reflux ratio
 If the liquid from the overhead condenser is totally recycled to the
column, i.e., no distillate is removed from the reflux drum (D=0),
the column is said to run at total reflux.

 The reflux ratio becomes

R= L/D = L/0 = 

 No product is drawn from the reboiler either. All the liquid flowing
to the reboiler is vaporized & fed back to the column.

 So, in a column operating at total reflux, there should not be any

flow of feed into it

283
 Total reflux ratio
 A column which has total reflux and boilup has no feed
- the distillate, bottoms, and feed flow rates are zero.

 This is a limiting condition which provides one with the minimum

number of equilibrium stages that can be obtained for a given column.

 While one would not typically operate under such conditions, total
reflux and boilup are used for starting up a column, for operating the
column off-line when other unit operations are off-line, and for
testing column efficiency.

284
 Total reflux ratio
 At total reflux:
R=L/D= 
Ln = V 
n 

L n /Vn = 1.0  (37)
Lm = V 
m 
L m /Vm = 1.0 


 Both operating lines (top & bottom operating lines), become the
y = x auxiliary line

 Operating a column under total reflux yields the minimum number of

equilibrium stages for a particular column.

285
Minimum number of stages at total reflux ratio
1.0

x = xW x = xD

0 x 1.0
Fig. 14. Minimum number of stages at total reflux ratio 286
 Fenske equation for minimum number of stages
 For conditions in which the relative volatility is constant, Fenske
derived an equation for calculating the required number of plates for
a desired separation when a total condenser (or total reflux) is used

 Since no product is withdrawn from the reboiler, the Eqns of the two
operating lines become:
y n = x n+1 and y m = x m+1  Ln  Vn and Lm  Vm 

 For a binary mixture (A and B), the concentrations in the reboiler

are x WA and x WB
 Composition on the first plate is given by
 xA   yA   xA   Remember: 
    W   
 

 xB 1  y B W  B W
x  =

(y /y
A B )


 w
 (x A /x B ) W 


 Where the subscript outside brackets indicates the plate & W reboiler
 Fenske equation for minimum number of stages
 For plate 2:
 xA   yA   xA   xA 
     1     1 W  
 xB 2  y B 1  xB 1  xB W

 For plate n:
 xA   yA   xA 
        .....   
1 2 3 n-1 W
 xB n  y B n-1  xB W

 If an average value of  is used (for n stages) then:

 xA  n  xA 
    av   geometric average 
 xB n  B W
x
 Fenske equation for minimum number of stages
 In most cases total condensation occurs in the condenser, so that:

 xA   yA   xA  n+1  xA 
    n     
 xB D  B n
y  B n
x av  xB W

 x   x    x D 1-x w 
log  A   B    
 x B D  x A  W 
= log  w 
1-x D x
 n+1 = (38)
log( av ) log( av )

 Where n is the required number of theoretical plates in the column

 For small variations in  ,
1
 av =  D W  2 (39)

 where  D is the relative volatility of the overhead vapour and  W

is the relative volatility of the bottoms liquid
 Minimum reflux ratio
 Minimum reflux, R min or (L/D) min , is defined as the external
reflux ratio at which the specified separation could just be obtained
with an infinite number of stages.

(L/V) min
R min  (L/D) min  (40)
1  (L/V) min

 An infinite number of stages are obtained if the operating lines touch

the equilibrium curve.

 The point on the equilibrium curve that this occurs is called a 'pinch'
point.

290
 Minimum reflux ratio: two types of pinch point
 For many systems, the pinch point will occur where the feed line
crosses the equilibrium curve.

 A second type of pinch point can occur in a 'non-ideal' system where

the operating line touches the equilibrium curve before the intersection
of the feed line and the equilibrium curve.

 One should always look at a system to determine if a non-ideal pinch

point occurs and don't just blindly assume it will be at the intersection
of the feed line and equilibrium curve.

291
 Minimum reflux ratio: two types of pinch point
1.0 1.0
L/Vminimum L/Vminimum
P

y
y

x = xF
x = xF
x = xD
x = xW x = xD x = xW
0 0
0 x 1.0 0 x 1.0
(a) (b)

Fig. 15. Construction for min reflux at infinite stages: (a) typical ideal or near-ideal system,
pinch point at the feed stage; (b) typical non-ideal system, pinch point above the feed stage
 Calculation of the minimum reflux ratio
 Fig.16 represents conditions where the q -line is vertical, and the
point E lies on the equilibrium curve and has co-ordinates (x F , y F ).

 The slope of the line AE is given by:-

Rm x -y
= D F (41)
R m +1 x -x
D F

or
x -y
Rm = D F (42)
y -x
F F

293
 Calculation of the minimum reflux ratio

xD Enrichment line for minimum reflux

A
Mole Fraction C6H6 in vapour, y

G
q-line
xD
E
yF
K
xF Enrichment line for total reflux
with minimum number of plates

B xF

Mole Fraction C6H6 in liquid, X

Fig.16. Influence of reflux ratio on the number of plates required for a given separation
294
 Calculation of the minimum reflux ratio
 If the q -line is horizontal as in Fig.17, the enrichment line for
minimum reflux ratio is given by AC, where C has coordinates
(x ,y ).
C C
 The slope of the line AC is given by:-

Rm x -y
= D C (43)
R m +1 x -x
D C

or

x -y x -x
Rm = D
C = D F (44)
y -x x -x
C C F C
since y =x
C F
295
 Calculation of the minimum reflux ratio
Mole Fraction C6H6 in vapour, y

xD

yC C q-line

xF
xC

Mole Fraction C6H6 in liquid, X

Fig.17. Minimum reflux ratio with feed as saturated vapour

296
 Underwood equation for minimum reflux ratio
 For ideal mixtures, or where over the concentration range concerned
the relative volatility  may be taken as constant, R m may be obtained
analytically from the physical properties of the system as shown by
Underwood

 If x nA and x nB are the mole fractions of two components A and B in

the liquid on any plate n, then a material balance over the top portion
of the column above plate n gives:

V y =L x + Dx (45a)
n nA n (n+1)A DA

V y =L x + Dx (45b)
n nB n (n+1)B DB

 Under conditions of minimum reflux, the composition on plate n is

297
equal to that on plate n+1,
 Underwood equation for minimum reflux ratio
 Under conditions of minimum reflux, the composition on plate n is
equal to that on plate n+1,

x = x and x = x (46)
(n+1)A nA (n+1)B nB

 Dividing Eqn (45a) by Eqn (45b) and using the relationship in

Eqn (46) and the relative volatility Eqn gives:

 y nA /y nB 
 =  is the relative volatility Eqn
 x nA /x nB 

 x nA y nA L n x nA + Dx DA
 =  (47)
x nB y nB L x + Dx
n nB DB

L  1  x DA x 
Thus: R m =  n       DB  (48)
 D min (  1)  x nA x 
 nB  298
 Underwood equation for minimum reflux ratio
 In general, there is a different value of R m for each plate
 In order to produce any separation of the feed, the minimum
relevant value of R m is that for the ideal plate

 The minimum reflux ratio for the desired separation is given by:

L  1  x DA x 
Rm =  n       DB  (49)
 D min (  1)  x FA x 
 FB 

 For a binary system this becomes:

 Ln  1  x DA  1-x 
Rm =        DA  (50)
min (  1)  x FA  1-x 
 D  FA  

299
 Selection of economic reflux ratio
Refer to Fig.18
As the reflux ratio is increased from the minimum, the number of plates decreases
(in a non linear fashion) until, at total reflux, the number of plates is minimum.

The cross sectional area of a column usually is approximately proportional to the

flow rate of vapour. As the reflux ratio increases, both V and L increase for a given
production, and a point is reached where the increase in column diameter is more
rapid than the decrease in the number of plates.

The cost of the unit is roughly proportional to the total plate area, that is, the
number of plates times the cross sectional area of the column. So the fixed
charges (capital cost) for the column first decrease and then increase with reflux
ratio.

The cost of the heat exchange equipment – the reboiler and the condenser –
increases steadily with reflux ratios, but at high reflux ratios it becomes significant
and contributes to the upturn in the curve for capital cost (line abc in Fig.18)
 Selection of economic reflux ratio

Fig. 18. Optimum reflux ratio

301
 Selection of economic reflux ratio
Refer to Fig.18
The reflux is made by supplying heat at the reboiler and withdrawing it at the
condenser. The costs of both heating and cooling (operating cost) increase with
reflux, as shown by curve de in Fig.18

The total cost is the sum of the fixed charges (capital cost) and the cost of heating
and cooling (operating cost), as shown by curve fgh

Curve fgh has a minimum at a definite reflux ratio not much greater than the
minimum reflux. This is the point of most economical operation, and this reflux is
called the optimum reflux ratio; it is usually in the range 1.1 to 1.5 times the
minimum reflux ratio. Actually, most plants are operated at reflux ratios somewhat
above the optimum. The total cost is not very sensitive to reflux ratio in this range,
and better operating flexibility is obtained if the reflux greater than the optimum is
used
 Selection of economic reflux ratio: Summary
Refer to Fig.16
For a given specification, a reflux ratio can be selected anywhere from the
minimum , Rm, to an infinite value (total reflux) where all the overhead vapour is
condensed and returned to the top stage thus no distillate is withdrawn!). The
minimum reflux corresponds to an infinite number of stages, while an infinite reflux
ratio corresponds to the minimum number of stages

As the reflux ratio increases, the operating lines of both sections of the tower
move towards the 45° line until, eventually, at total reflux, they will coincide.
Because the operating lines are located as far away as possible from the
equilibrium curve, a minimum number of stages is required, as Fig. 16 shows

Any reflux ratio between the minimum and infinity will provide the desired
separation, with the corresponding number of theoretical trays required varying
from infinity to the minimum number.
 Selection of economic reflux ratio: Summary
Refer to Fig.18
The reflux ratio to be used for the new design should be the optimum, the one for
which the total cost of operation will be the least.

At the minimum reflux ratio the column requires an infinite number of stages and,
consequently, the fixed cost is infinite, but the operating costs (heat for the
reboiler, condenser cooling water, power for the reflux pump) are least.

As R increases, the number of trays rapidly decreases, but the column diameter
increases, owing to the larger quantities of recycled liquid and vapour per unit
quantity of feed. The condenser, reboiler, and reflux pump must also be larger.
The fixed costs, therefore, fall through a minimum and rise to infinity again at total
reflux. On the other hand, the operating costs increase almost directly with reflux
ratio. The total cost, which is the sum of the fixed and operating costs, must
therefore pass through a minimum at the optimum reflux ratio, as Fig.18 shows.
This frequently occurs at a value of R = Ropt, in the range of 1.2Rm to 1.5Rm
 Example
A continuous fractionating column is to be designed to separate 350 kmols/hr of a
mixture of 44 mole % benzene and 56 mole % toluene into an overhead product
containing 97.4 mole % benzene and a bottom product containing 97.6 mole %
toluene. A reflux ratio of 3.5 mole of 1 mole of product is used. The molal latent
heats of benzene and toluene are 7360 and 7960 cal/mol, respectively. The feed

has a boiling point (bubble point) of 95°C at a pressure of 1 atm.

 (a) Calculate the mols of overhead product and bottom product per hr

 (b) Determine the number of ideal plates and the position of the feed plate

(i) if the feed is at its boiling point

(ii) if the feed is liquid at 20°C (specific heat 0.44 cal/g°c)

(iii) if the feed is a mixture of two-thirds vapour and one third liquid (q=1/3)

 (c) Determine the maximum number of plates required for effective separation of

system b(i)
 Example
Equilibrium data for benzene-toluene system is given below

xC6H6 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
yC6H6 0.2 0.376 0.517 0.623 0.718 0.788 0.853 0.906 0.953 1.000

The molecular weight of the benzene-toluene feed mixture is 85.8 g/mole

 Solution

 (a) Carry out a material balance (total and component)

Total: F=D+W (A)

350 = D + W

Component: Fx F = Dx D + Wx W (B)
350x0.44 = Dx0.974 + (350-D)x0.0235

 D = 153.4 kmol; W = 350-153.4 = 196.6 kmol

Refer to Fig.E3(a)
 (b) (i) if the feed is at boiling point, then q-line or feed line is vertical,
i.e., q = 1.
 Solution
 Use the reflux ratio to get top operating line
R xD
yn = x n+1 + (36)
R+1 R+1

3.5 0.974
yn = x n+1 +
3.5+1 3.5+1

y n = 0.778x n+1 + 0.216

 We obtain the bottom operating line by joining (x W , x W ) to the

point of intersection of the top operating line with the q-line which
is the feed point. In this case the q -line is vertical

 ANSWER: 12 plates are needed and the feed is admitted at the seventh
plate from the top
 Solution
 (b) (ii) q is determined from

CPL (TB  TF )
q = 1+ (26)
λ

where λ = average latent heat of vaporisation

= 0.44 (7360) + 0.56 (7960)
= 7696 cal/mol

λ 7696
= = 89.7 cal/g
molar weight 85.8

0.44(95  20)
 q = 1+ =1.37
89.7
 Solution
 From Eqn (33) the slope of the q -line is
q x
y= x F (33)
q-1 q 1

Refer to Fig.E3(b)
q 1.37
 = = 3.70
q  1 1.37  1

 Draw the line having a gradient of 3.70 passing through the feed
(x F , x F , i.e., 0.44, 0.44).
Join bottom operating line from point of intersection with the top
operating line to the exit point x W (x W = 0.0235)

 ANSWER: 11 plates and feed is admitted at plate 5 from the top

 Solution
 (b) (iii) from the definition of q (i.e., q is the fraction of liquid
in a vapour-liquid mixture) , q = 1/3.
 Therefore, slope of the q-line is
1 Refer to Fig.E3(c)
q 3
= = -0.5
q-1 1 -1
3
 Draw the line with gradient -0.5 passing through the feed
(x F , x F , i.e., 0.44, 0.44).
Join bottom operating line from point of intersection with the top
operating line to the exit point x W (x W = 0.0235)

 ANSWER: 13 plates and feed is admitted at plate 7 from the top

 (c) See graphical method Fig. E3(d) (i.e., infinite number of plates
at minimum reflux) Refer to Fig.E3(d)
 Solution

Wrong Figure

Fig. E3. Calculation of the number of plates by the McCabe -Thiele method
 Solution

Corrected bottom
operating line

Fig. E3. Calculation of the number of plates by the McCabe -Thiele method
 Boil-up ratio
 Similar to the reflux ratio (R) defined for the rectifying section, a
boil-up ratio, R v , is defined for the stripping section

 Recall the bottom (or stripping) operating line:

Lm W
ym = x m+1  xW (17)
Vm Vm

V moles of vapour leaving the reboiler

Rv = m = (51)
W moles of liquid drawn as bottom product

314
 Example
A mixture of benzene and toluene containing 40 mole% benzene is to be
separated continuously in a tray tower at a rate of 200 kmol/hr. The top product
should have 95 mole% of benzene and the bottom must not contain more than 4
mole% of it. The reflux is a saturated liquid and a reflux ratio of 2.0 is maintained.
The feed is a saturated liquid.

 (a) Obtain and plot the operating lines for the rectifying and stripping sections
on the x-y plane.

 (b) What is the boil-up ratio?

The vapour-liquid equilibrium data at the operating pressure of 101.3kPa are

given below

x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
y 0 0.21 0.38 0.511 0.627 0.719 0.79 0.853 0.91 0.961 1.000

315
 Solution
 Assume constant molar overflow.
 Total material balance:
F= D + W  200 = D + W (a)

 Total benzene balnce::

Fz F = Dx D + Wx W  200( 0.4) = D(0.95) + W(0.04) (b)

 Solving Eqn (a) & (b)

D = 79.1 kmol/h; W = 120.9 kmol/h

Ln Ln
 Knowing R =  2.0 
D 79.1

 L n  158.2
316
 Solution

 Knowing Vn = L n +D = RD + D =D(R+1)
 Vn = 79.1(2+1) = 237.3 kmol/h

 Since the feed is a liquid, the vapour rate remains constant

Vn = V1 = V2 = 237.3 kmol/h (in the rectifying section)

 Flow rates in the stripping section: Since the feed is a saturated liquid,
the liquid rate increases by 200 kmol/h below the feed plate. However,
the vapour rate remains constant (at 237.3 kmol/h) through out

 Liquid flow rate: L m = L n + F

= 158.2+200 = 358.2 kmol/h

317
 Solution
 Operating lines:
R xD
 Rectifying section: y n = xn 1 
R+1 R+1
2 0.95
yn = xn 1 
2+1 2+1

 y n = 0.667x n+1  0.317 (c)

Lm W
 Stripping line: y m = xm 1  xW
Lm  W Lm  W

358.2 (120.9)(0.04)
ym = xm 1 
358.2  120.9 358.2  120.9

 y m = 1.509x m+1  0.0204 (d)

318
 Solution
 Eqns (c) and (d) are the rectifying and stripping sections operating
lines respectively
 The equlibrium curve is plotted on the x-y plane.
 The top operating line passes through the point (x D , x D ), i.e.,
(0.95,0.95) and has an intercept of 0.317.
 The bottom operating line passes through the point (x W , x W ), i.e.,
(0.04,0.04) and has a slope of 1.509

 Boiling-up ratio:
V 2.37.3
Rv = m = = 1.963
W 120.9

319