DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

CENTRAL POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

THARAMANI, CHENNAI-600113
(An Autonomous Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INTERSHIP REPORT
COMPANY : M/S.METROPOLITAN TRANSPORT CORPORATION (MTC)

PRESENTED BY

MANIKANDAN.V

in partial fulfillment for the award of the

degree of

DIPLOMA

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENTORED BY

VENUGOPAL.V

MAY 2023
 DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
CENTRAL POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
THARAMANI, CHENNAI-600113
(An Autonomous Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INTERSHIP REPORT
COMPANY: M/S.METROPOLITAN TRANSPORT CORPORATION (MTC)

PRESENTED BY

MANIKANDAN.V

in partial fulfillment for the award of the

degree of

DIPLOMA

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MENTORED BY

VENUGOPAL.V

MAY 2023
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the internship training by Thiru: MANIKANDAN.V

Registration Number : 201120067 at M/s. MTC-REGIONAL WORKSHOP Internship, in

partial fulfilment of the requirements of the award of the Diploma In Mechanical Engineering

during the year 2023-2024 of his study in the Department Of Mechanical Engineering,

Central Polytechnic College under my supervision and the report has not formed the basis for

the award of any diploma\fellowship or other similar title to any candidate of any college.

Faculty Mentor Head of the Department

Submitted for the Board Examination held at Central Polytechnic College, on ______________

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 DECLARATION

I MANIKANDAN.V hereby declare that the internship training report, entitled “MTC-

REGIONAL WORKSHOP Internship Report”, submitted to the Central Polytechnic College

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Diploma In Mechanical

Engineering is a record of the original training undergone by me during the period from

22.05.2023 to 20.06.2023 under supervision and guidance of V.VENUGOPAL, M.Tech ,

Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Central Polytechnic College and it has not formed

the basis for the award of any diploma\fellowship or other similar title to any candidate of any

college.
 I

ACKOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those who gave me the
possibility to complete this report.
I express my tanks to our Principal Dr.E.M Srinivasan., Ph.D., for his continuous
encouragement in the Internship and Project
I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to Thiru. G. Gopu, M.E., Head
of the Department Mechanical, CPT College , Chennai for his generous guidance , help and
useful suggestions.
I express my sincere gratitude to Thiru. V.Venugopal., M.Tech., Lecturer , Department of
Mechanical Engineering for his stimulating guidance , continuous encouragement throughout the
course of the work
Finally , my thanks to all other teaching and non-teaching staff of Mechanical Engineering
Department , CPT college , Chennai -600113.
 II
ABSTRACT

GEARBOX:
 A gearbox is a mechanical device used to transmit power from one component to another,
while also changing the speed and torque of the output. This abstract provides an
overview of the functionality and importance of gearboxes in various industries.
 Gearboxes play a crucial role in many applications, such as automotive, industrial
machinery, and renewable energy systems. They are designed to efficiently transfer
power from an input source, such as an engine or motor, to an output component, such as
wheels or a conveyor belt.

ELECTRIC MOTOR:

 An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is
widely used in various applications, ranging from household appliances to industrial
machinery. This abstract provides an overview of the working principle, types, and
applications of electric motors.
 The working principle of an electric motor is based on the interaction between a magnetic
field and an electric current. When an electric current flow through a wire that is placed in a
magnetic field, a force is exerted on the wire, causing it to move. This movement is
harnessed to generate mechanical energy.

AIR COMPRESSOR:

 An air compressor is a mechanical device that converts power into potential energy
stored in compressed air. It is widely used in various industries and applications, such as
powering pneumatic tools, inflating tires, and supplying clean air for breathing apparatus.
  This abstract provides an overview of the key components, working
principles, and benefits of air compressors. It also highlights the
importance of proper maintenance and safety precautions to ensure
optimal performance and longevity of the equipment.

UNIVERSAL JOINTS:

 A universal joint, also known as a U-joint, is a mechanical device used to

connect two shafts at an angle to transmit torque and rotational motion. It
consists of a cross-shaped component with four arms, each connected to a
shaft.
 The U-joint allows for flexibility and compensates for misalignment
between the shafts, making it suitable for various applications such as
automotive drivetrains, industrial machinery, and aerospace systems. This
abstract provides a brief overview of the universal joint, highlighting its
purpose, design, and applications.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO. TITTLE PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPANY PROFILE 01
OVERVIEW
1.2 HISTORY 02

2. GEAR BOX
2.1 GEAR BOX 03
2.2 WHAT IS GEAR BOX 05
2.3 WHAT IS PURPOSE OF GEAR 07
2.4 HOW DO THEY WORK 08
2.5 TYPES OF GEAR BOX 09

3. ELECTRIC MOTOR
3.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR 11
3.2 WHAT IS ELECTRIC MOTOR 11
3.3 CONTRUCTION OF 12
ELECTRIC MOTOR
3.4 ELECTRIC MOTOR BEARINGS 12
3.5 ELECTRIC MOTOR ROTOR 12
 3.6 ELECTRIC MOTOR STATOR 14
3.7 ELCTRIC MOTOR ARMATURE 15
3.8 ELECTRIC MOTOR COMMUTATOR 16
3.9 HOW AN ELECTRIC 16
MOTOR FUNCTIONS

4. AIR COMPRESSOR
4.1 AIR COMPRESSOR 17
4.2 AIR COMPRESSOR 17
VITALLY IMPORTANT
4.3 WHY AIR IS COMPRESSED 18
4.4 HOW AIR COMPRESSOR WORK 18
4.5 TYPES AND TECHNOLOGY 20
4.6 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT 22
4.7 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR 22
4.8 ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSOR 23
4.9 ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR 24
4.10 ROLLING PISTON COMPRESSOR 25
4.11 SCROLL COMPRESSOR 26
4.12 DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSOR 27

5. UNIVERSAL JOINTS
5.1 UNIVERSAL JOINTS 29
 5.2 HOOKE’S TYPE JOINTS 29
5.3 WHAT IS UNIVERSAL JOINTS 31

5.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF 31

UNIVERSAL JOINTS
5.5 TYPES OF JOINTS 32
5.6 APPLICATIONS OF 33
UNIVERSAL JOINTS
5.7 ADVANTAGES OF 34
UNIVERSAL JOINTS
5.8 DISADVANTAGES OF 36
UNIVAERSAL JOINTS

6. CONCLUSION 37
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITTLE PAGE NO.
2.1.1 TYPES OF GEAR 03
2.1.2 GEAR TEETH 05
3.1.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR 11
3.1.2 ELECTRIC ROTOR 13
3.1.3 ELECTRIC STATOR 14
3.1.4 ELECTRIC ARMATURE 15
4.1.1 AIR COMPRESSOR 17
4.1.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSOR 21
4.1.3 RECIPROCATING AIR 22
COMPRESSOR
4.1.4 ROTARY SCREW AIR 23
COMPRESSOR
4.1.5 ROTARY VANE AIR 24
COMPRESSOR
4.1.6 ROLLING PISTON AIR 25
COMPRESSOR
4.1.7 SCROLL AIR COMPRESSOR 26
4.1.8 DIAPHRAGAM COMPRESSOR 27
5.1.1 JOINTS 29
5.1.2 TYPES OF JOINTS 30
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMPANY PROFILE OVERVIEW

The Metropolitan Transport Corporation (Chennai) Ltd. - MTC, is the agency that
operates the public bus service in Chennai, India. As of December 2022 the MTC
had a total fleet of 3,436 buses with 3,233 scheduled services, with on average
2.946 million passengers per day On March 22, 2016, the Union Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways reported that Chennai had the most crowded buses in the
country with 1300 passengers per bus in each direction per day. During peak
hours, in some routes, a bus with a capacity to accommodate 80 persons carries
twice the number of people due to the extensiveness of the system. It has an
operating area of 3,929 square kilometers (1,517 sq mi). MTC has a total of 604
routes with its largest terminus being Broadway in Central Chennai. On 20 January
2018, the MTC introduced a controversial rise in fares with minimum fares for
ordinary buses going up from Rs 2 to Rs 5, and maximum fare going up from Rs
12 to Rs 23, the fares were also hiked for other categories of buses with the
minimum fare for Express buses becoming Rs 8 and maximum becoming Rs 35
while the minimum fares of Deluxe buses were Rs 12 and maximum fares Rs 48,
this was the first such price hike since 2011. This was followed with an increase
in the number of deluxe buses (from 900 to 1200) which were the costliest buses.
This led to a 30% fall in the number of daily passengers within 3 months. The
MTC had projected a 40% rise in daily revenue from Rs 25 million to Rs 40
million but ended up receiving only Rs 28 million in daily revenue a 12% increas
1
1.2 HISTORY
In 1947, the Government of Madras nationalized the
passenger transport for the first time by introducing 30 buses in Madras City, side
by side with the buses run by the private operators at that time. The operation was
under the control of the Madras State Transport Department. In 1972, the
departmental setup was transformed into a company setup in order to inoculate a
commercial approach without sacrificing the social responsibilities. The fleet
strength gradually increased correspondingly to the requirements of the public and
reached 2332 on 01.01.1994. Following that Pallavan Transport Corporation Ltd
was bifurcated as Dr. Ambedkar Transport Corporation Limited and Pallavan
Transport Corporation Limited on 19.01.1994. The South of the Chennai
Metropolitan city from EVR Periyar road came under the operational jurisdiction of
the Pallavan Transport Corporation Limited. The North of Chennai Metropolitan city
from EVR Periyar Road (including EVR Periyar road) came under the operational
jurisdiction of the Dr. Ambedkar Transport Corporation Limited. Both the divisions
were amalgamated into a single corporation under the name Metropolitan Transport
Corporation (CHENNAI) LTD. with effect from 10-01- 2001 total size of fleet of
the MTC is 3688, of which 3492 buses are operated every day on an average. MTC
operates over 5000 services daily covering about 830 routes. The last time buses
were added to the fleet was in January 2020.

Per RTO rules, an MTC bus could accommodate a maximum of 83 passengers,

including 48 sitting and 27 standing.
 CHAPTE
R-2

2.1 GEARBOX

FIG .2.1.1 TYPES OF GEAR

The Gearbox is called a ger transmission. It simply refers to the steps of the gear
and their casing; these gearboxes are mostly found in automobiles/cars. Most
motor car/truck engines conduct high idling speeds and high operating
transmission, which allows the machine to operate efficiently. It is mostly used in
the automobile industry. These gearboxes are used to transfer the energy from one
rotating power source to another, mostly used in the automobile industry.
 3he gears inside of a gearbox can be any
one of a number of types from bevel gears and spiral bevel gears to and others
such as planetary gears. The gears are mounted on shafts, which are supported by
and rotate via rolling element bearings. The gearbox is a mechanical method of
transferring energy from one device to another and is used to increase torque while
reducing speed. Gearboxes are used in many applications including machine tools,
industrial equipment, conveyors, and really any rotary motion power transmission
application that requires changes to torque and speed requirements.

So it’s clear — a gearbox is always a fully integrated mechanical component

consisting of a series of mating gears contained in a housing with shafts and bearings
(to support and resolve loads) and in many cases a flange for motor mounting.
Most of the motion industry makes no differentiation between the terms gearhead
and gearbox. But in a few contexts, the term gearbox specifically refers to housed
gearing as described above while the more general term gearhead refers to
assemblies otherwise open gearing that installs within some existing machine
frame.

The latter are targeted to compact or battery-powered mobile designs necessitating

especially tight integration and omission of extra subcomponents. Here, a series of
parallel plates might support the gear-train shafts (and their bearings) and allow
bolting to a motor face.

Gearboxes are used in many applications including machine tools, industrial

equipment, conveyors, and really any rotary motion power transmission
application that requires changes to torque and speed requirements.

2.2 WHAT IS GEARBOX

The Gearbox is the system that maintains the vehicle’s speed, and it is an essential
part of the vehicle’s transmission system. The Gearbox is the device that increases
the output torque and changes or decreases the speed of the vehicle motor. The
motor has a shaft connected with the end of the Gearbox and, throughout the
configuration, internal to the gears of a gearbox which will provide a given output
torque.

FIG.2.1.2 GEAR TEETH

5
In simple language, Gearbox is a device whose gears decide the vehicle’s speed.
The meaning of the Gearbox is hidden in itself. This is a method by which we can
transfer energy from one device/machine to another, and generally, it is used to
increase the speed or torque of the vehicle and reduce speed and torque.

Most of the mechanical devices used this method of the Gearbox, for example,
tools of the machine, equipment in the industries, and power transmission to
change the speed and the torque as per need Most of the motion industry makes no
differentiation between the terms gearhead and gearbox. But in a few contexts, the
term gearbox specifically refers to housed gearing as described above while the
more general term gearhead refers to assemblies otherwise open gearing that
installs within some existing machine frame. The latter are targeted to compact or
battery- powered mobile designs necessitating especially tight integration and
omission of extra subcomponent. The term “gearbox” is one of those terms, often
times used interchangeably with gearhead or gear reducer. Even though they
sometimes refer to slightly different physical arrangements of gears.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF GEARBOX

The Gearbox provides torque and speed conversion because of the internal
combustion lamination. It also facilitates the direction changes for the output shaft
to reverse. The main purpose of the Gearbox in the car is to decrease the load which
is on the engine by controlling the torque and the speed of the vehicle. Gearbox also
has an option to select the different types of gear ratios. Once the engine crosses the
speed limit on the first gear, it will advise to increase the gear and reduce the
engine’s rpm, allowing it to pick the greater speed and acceleration and get better
fuel economy.
Most vehicle gearboxes are used to increase the torque and reduce the speed of an
6
has a provisional to apply opposite that it will offer, increasing the speed of shaft
output with the torque reduction.

2.3 HOW DO THEY WORK

The hydraulic motor and electric motor are applied at one end of a Gearbox. On the
other end, the energy is converted into low-speed drive torque. The material used in
the box has a long life and long service life, which helps or supports the enormous
strength.

Mechanism of gear shifting

 The liver of the gear used to shift the gear is located on the steering or the
steering column.
 In cars, the mechanism of the gear shifter column is used, while on the other
hand, the mechanism of the footboard is used in the commercial vehicle,
vans, jeeps, and medium vehicles.
 he gear shifting mechanism is used to change the gear easily in the car. I had
fork on the Gearbox to engage the slot of the Gearbox.
 The tip is fitted on the gear shift lever at the top of the selector fork in the
slot.
 It offers free sideway movement in the neutral position. In case the column
of the steering gear changes its arrangement, that free movement is in the
down and the up direction.
 The mechanism of the floor type shifting needs less maintenance cost.
 It is easy to operate the column steering gear shifting mechanism because
the driver doesn’t need to move his hand for a long distance. In this
mechanism, the driver has to move his hand a short distance, and because of
it, the car can provide/offer more cabin space.
 7

 The tip is fitted on the gear shift lever at the top of the selector fork in the
slot.
 It offers free sideway movement in the neutral position. In case the column
of the steering gear changes its arrangement, that free movement is in the
down and the up direction.
 The mechanism of the floor type shifting needs less maintenance cost.
 It is easy to operate the column steering gear shifting mechanism because
the driver doesn’t need to move his hand for a long distance. In this
mechanism, the driver has to move his hand a short distance, and because of
it, the car can provide/offer more cabin space.
 But it is quite difficult to learn and operate this steering column shifting
mechanism, which requires more maintenance and is costly.

2.4 TYPES OF GEARBOXES

There are four main types of Gearbox

 Parallel
 Shaft Mount
 Concentric
 Right-angled

Parallel

In the parallel Gearbox, the low-speed and high-speed shafts are on the horizontal
plane, which is the same and parallel. And its mounting is foot mounted.

Shaft Mount
 In the shaft gearbox, the Gearbox is directly mounted onto and supported with or
by a driven shaft. And its mounting is shaft mou 8
Concentric

In the concentric Gearbox, the high-speed and low-speed shafts are on the horizontal
and vertical planes, which are the same. And its mounting is foot mounted.

Right-angled

In the right-angled Gearbox, the high-speed and low-speed shafts have a relationship
that is 90 degrees. And its mounting is foot mounted.

2.5 BELOW THERE IS A LIST OF FIVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF

INDUSTRIAL GEARBOXES

 Planetary Gearbox
 Helical Gearbox Unique Point
 Worm gearbox
 Bevel Helical Gearbox

Planetary Gearbox

This Planetary Gearbox is known for its accuracy, durability, and distinctive have
functionality. By precise applications, it is characterized. Using a planetary gearbox
in the car will extend your device’s life of service and improve the car’s
performance.
The Planetary Gearbox is available in two types, either in the form of a solid hollow
or with various mounting, including flange, foot, and shaft. The type of the industry
depends on the gear. Gearboxes are designed in such a way that they simplify their
mechanical function in various types of industries.
 Helical Gearbox Unique Point

This Planetary Gearbox is known for its accuracy, durability, and distinctive
functionality. By precise applications, it is characterized. Using a planetary
gearbox in the car will extend your device’s life of service and improve the car’s
performance.

The Planetary Gearbox is available in two types, either in the form of a solid
hollow or with various mounting, including flange, foot, and shaft. The type of the
industry depends on the gear. Gearboxes are designed in such a way that they
simplify their mechanical function in various types of industries.

Worm gearbox

The one point of the helical Gearbox is unique: it is angled and fixed, allowing the
same direction in a similar direction as it gets a move. As a result, the contact remains
constant for a certain time.

The helical gearing, which is an extruder, is also used when the strength torsional
is optimally used, and it is also used for applications with low excitement. Applications
include conveyors, steel, elevators, rolling mills, and the oil industry.

Bevel Helical Gearbox

Bevel Helical Gearbox is the set of curved teeth that is on. The surface is conical
near the edge of the machine. The bevel gear also creates the rotary motion
between the non-parallel shaft. In mines, conveyor belts and also in mixers are
involved. Bevel Helical Gearbox is the set of curved teeth that is on. The surface is
conical near the edge of the machine.
10
CHAPTER - 3

3.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR

FIG 3.1.1 ELECTRIC MOTOR

3.2 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

An electric motor is an electric machine that converts electrical energy to mechanical

energy. Most electric motors work via the interaction of the motor magnetic field
and electrical current in a wound wire to produce force in the manner of torque
supplied on the motor shaft. An electrical generator is identical mechanically to an
electrical motor but functions with a reversed flow of energy, converting
mechanical power to electrical power.
11power supply type, application,
construction, and type of movement output. They may be energized by DC or AC,
be brushless or brushed, three-phase, two-phase, or single-phase, radial flux or
axial, and can be liquid-cooled or air-cooled.

Standardized motors offer appropriate mechanical energy for industrial use.

Applications include blowers and pumps, industrial fans, machine tools, power tools,
household appliances, disk drives, and vehicles. Small motors can be found in
electrical watches.
3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

Two mechanical components of electric motors are the stator, which is fixed and
the rotor, which moves. It also has two electrical components, magnets set and an
armature, one of them is attached to the stator and the other to the rotor, together
making a magnetic circuit. Field magnets produce a magnetic field that passes
through the winding. These may be permanent magnets or electromagnets. The
field magnet is generally on the stator and the winding on the rotor, but in other
motor types these are reversed.

3.4 ELECTRIC MOTOR BEARINGS

Bearings support the rotor and allow the rotor to spin on its axis. The motor housing
in turn supports the bearings. Bearings support the rotor and allow the rotor to spin
on its axis. The motor housing in turn supports the bearings.

3.5 ELECTRIC MOTOR ROTOR

The rotor is the mobile part that supplies the mechanical power. The rotor
generally holds conductors which carry current and the stator magnetic field
applies a force on to spin the shaft.
12
Alternatively, other rotors have permanent magnets, and conductors are held by the
stator. Permanent magnets give high efficiency over a bigger power range and
working speed.

The air gap between the rotor and stator allows it to spin. The breadth of the gap
has an important effect on the motor electrical properties. It is commonly made to
be as small as possible, since a large gap produces weak performance. It is the
primary source for the low power factor with which motors function. The
energizing current rises and power factor reduces with the air gap, hence narrow
gaps are better. Conversely, gaps which are very small may cause mechanical
problems on top of losses and noise.

FIG 3.1.2 ROTOR

 13The motor shaft protrudes through
bearings to the motor’s outer side, where the load is placed. Because the force of the
load is applied beyond the furthest outer bearing, load is overhung.

3.6 ELECTRIC MOTOR STATOR

The stator surrounds the rotor, and generally holds the field magnets, these are
either electromagnets consisting of wound wire on a ferromagnetic core of iron or
permanent magnets. These produce a magnetic field that passes through the rotor
winding, applying force on the winding. The stator iron core is made of many thin

FIG 3.1.3 STATOR

Lamination is utilized to lower energy loss which results if a solid core is utilized.
Resin-packed motors, utilized in air conditioners and washing machines, utilize the
damping attributes of plastic to lower vibration and noise.
 14

3.7 ELECTRIC MOTOR ARMATURE

The armature comprises wound wire on a ferromagnetic core. Current flowing

through wire makes the magnetic field exert a Lorentz force onto it, rotating the
rotor, which supplies the mechanical output. Windings are wires which are applied
in coils, generally wrapped around a soft, laminated, iron, ferromagnetic core to

FIG 3.1.4 ARMATURE

Lamination is utilized to lower energy loss which results if a solid core is utilized.
Resin-packed motors, utilized in air conditioners and washing machines, utilize the
damping attributes of plastic to lower vibration and noise.
 15
3.8 ELECTRIC MOTOR COMMUTATOR

A commutator is a rotary electric switch which supplies alternating or direct current

to the rotor. It periodically reverses the current flow in the rotor winding as the shaft
spins. It comprises a cylinder made of multiple metal contact sections on the
armature. Electrical contacts named "brushes" consisted of a soft conductor material
like carbon pressed onto the commutator. The brushes create sliding contacts with
consecutive commutator sections as it spins, offering current onto the rotor.
The rotor wire wounds are connected to the commutator sections. The commutator
reverses the direction of current periodically in the rotor windings with each a half
turn (180°), hence torque exerted to the rotor is in the same direction always. Without
this current reversal, the torque direction on every winding of the rotor would reverse on
each half a turn, hence the rotor stops. Commutators are incompetent and
commutator motors have been frequently replaced by brushless DC motors,
induction motors and permanent magnet motors.

3.9 HOW AN ELECTRIC MOTOR FUNCTIONS

Electric motors function by changing electrical power (AC or DC) to mechanical

power in order to produce motion. Force is created within a motor via the
interaction between winding direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current and a
magnetic field. As the current flow strength rises, so does the magnetic field
strength. With Ohm's law (V = R*I) in mind, voltage should rise so as to maintain
constant current as resistance rises.
 CHAPTER
–4

4.1 AIR COMPRESSOR

FIG .4.1.1 AIR COMPRESSOR

4.2 AIR COMPRESSOR VITALLY IMPORTANT

Air compressors have had more impact on our society – and especially the
industrial sector – than almost any other invention. In less than 150 years since
Austrian engineer Viktor Popp built the first compressor plant, compressed air has
become so indispensable that it is now referred to as the ‘fourth utility’ along with
electric circuit water and gas. The numbers back up this bold statement. It is
estimated that 10% of all electricity consumed by the manufacturing industry is
used for compressed air.
water and gas.
17

4.3 WHY AIR IS COMPRESSED

Put simply, air compressors transform regular, atmospheric air into pressurised
compressed air by squeezing it into a much smaller space than it is usually in. One
of the reasons compressed air has become so indispensable is its versatility. Just
about every industry relies on compressed air in some form. You’ll find it used
everywhere from manufacturing plants for cars, to ships and trains, or construction
sites and hospitals With so many different applications, it also makes sense that there
are many different types of air compressors. After all, the small, quiet compressor
powering a dentist’s drill should not be the same as the industrial compressor that
keeps an entire manufacturing plant going.

4.4 HOW AIR COMPRESSORS WORK

There are two main types of air-compression technologies

 Dynamic compressors
 Positive displacement compressors
 Piston compressors
 Rotary screw compressors
 scroll compressors

Dynamic compressors

Dynamic compressors achieve the required rise in pressure by accelerating the air
(or gas) with an impeller and then slowing it down in a diffuser. Dynamic
compressors are primarily used for operations and applications that require very
high volumes of air.

18Positive displacement compressors

Positive displacement compressors have a cavity that fills with regular air (or
another gas at atmospheric pressure). The cavity is then made smaller. This means
the same amount of air has to fit into a smaller space. The result? The air is put
under pressure.

Positive displacement compressors are used much more frequently than dynamic
compressors. Of course, the world of positive displacement compressors includes
different types of technology too.

Piston compressors

Piston compressors, also known as reciprocating compressors, use a piston that

ascends and descends into the cavity to pressurise the air. They are often used for
operations with a low compressed air demand. They’re relatively inexpensive.

Rotary screw compressors

Rotary screw compressors are more advanced. They use rotors to move air into
increasingly small areas. The total cost of ownership is quite low. They’re more
energy efficient and produce more compressed air.

Scroll compressors
 Finally, scroll compressors feature a double rotor. However, they’re not nearly as
common as the other types of positive displacement compressors.

19DIFFERENT
AIR COMPRESSOR TYPES AND
TECHNOLOGIES

Oil-injected versus oil-free: Not every application requires top-quality, pure, clean
air. For example, ‘energy air’ is fine for inflating a tyre. It’s generally okay if
energy air is less clean or has traces of oil in it, which means an oil-injected
compressor is perfect for producing it. Good news, since they’re more economical
to buy and operate.

However, compressed air that comes into contact with pharmaceuticals or food has
to be super-clean and meet stringent regulations. This is known as ‘active air’. In
these cases, an oil-free compressor is a much better choice. It produces compressed
air that is completely clean.

Single-stage and two-stage piston compressors: Piston compressors come in

two versions and are available either as single-stage or two-stage models.

For small jobs that do not require a continuous air supply, a less expensive single-
stage version will do. However, if you’re operating high-powered tools and need a
continuous supply of compressed air, a two-stage piston air compressor is probably
a better solution.

Belt drive versus direct drive: Belt-driven compressors are a better choice when
reliability, ease of operation, cost-effectiveness and power matter most. If
applications call for the compressor to adjust its speed and power, however, a
direct drive is usually preferable.

20 Fixed-speed versus variable-speed

drives: It takes a lot of energy to compress air. In fact, over the lifetime of a
compressor, the majority of the total cost of ownership will come from energy costs.

This brings us to the difference between fixed-speed and variable speed drive
compressors. As their name indicates, fixed-speed models only have one speed.
They’re perfect for applications or operations that require a steady flow of air.
Match the output of the compressor to the demand and you’re set. What if your
production site has a fluctuating air demand? A variable-speed drive compressor may
be a better option. The purchase price is higher. Afterwards, they consume much
less energy by matching the compressor speed to the air demand. As such, they are
much more efficient and offer a significantly lower cost of ownership.
 FIG .4.1.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSOR

21POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT

A positive displacement compressor is a system that compresses the air by the

displacement of a mechanical linkage reducing the volume since the reduction in
volume due to a piston in thermodynamics is considered as positive displacement
of the piston. Put another way, a positive displacement compressor is one that
operates by drawing in a discrete volume of gas from its inlet then forcing that gas
to exit via the compressor's outlet. The increase in the pressure of the gas is due, at
least in part, to the compressor pumping it at a mass flow rate which cannot pass
through the outlet at the lower pressure and density of the inlet.

4.5 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

FIG .4.1.3 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either

stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric
motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to
30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are
typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp
(750 kW) are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications.
Discharge

22 pressures can range from low pressure to

very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain applications, such as air
compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient
compressors available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable
rotary units.[4] Another type of reciprocating compressor, usually employed in
automotive cabin air conditioning systems,[citation needed] is the swash plate or
wobble plate compressor, which uses pistons moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft
see axial piston pump. Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors
are typically reciprocating compressors 1½ hp or less with an attached receiver tank.

A linear compressor is a reciprocating compressor with the piston being the rotor
of a linear motor. Type of compressor can compress a wide range of gases,
including refrigerant, hydrogen, and natural gas. Because of this, it finds use in a
wide range of applications in many different industries and can be designed to a
wide range of capacities, by varying size, number of cylinders, and cylinder
unloading. However, it suffers from higher losses due to clearance volumes,
resistance due to discharge and suction valves, weighs more, is difficult to
maintain due to having a large number of moving parts, and it has inherent
vibration.

4.6 ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS

 FIG 4.1.4 ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSOR

23Rotary screw compressors use two

meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller
space. These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial
applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3
horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to
moderately high pressure. The classifications of rotary screw compressors vary based
on stages, cooling methods, and drive types among others.[8] Rotary screw
compressors are commercially produced in Oil Flooded, Water Flooded and Dry
type. The efficiency of rotary compressors depends on the air drier,[clarification
needed] and the selection of air drier is always 1.5 times volumetric delivery of the
compressor. Screw compressors have less moving components, larger capacity, less
vibration and surging, can operate at variable speeds, and typically have higher
efficiency.

4.7 ROTARY VANE COMPRESSORS

FIG 4.1.5 ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR.

24
Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial
slots in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing that is either circular or
a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots
keeping contact with the outer wall of the housing. Thus, a series of increasing and
decreasing volumes is created by the rotating blades. Rotary vane compressors are,
with piston compressors one of the oldest of compressor technologies. With suitable
port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump. They
can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven
by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used at
relatively low pressures (e.g., 2 bar or 200 kPa or 29 psi) for bulk material movement
while oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve
pressures up to about 13 bar (1,300 kPa; 190 psi) in a single stage. A rotary vane
compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in
operation than the equivalent piston compressor.

4.10 ROLLING PISTON COMPRESSOR

FIG .4.1.6 ROLLING PISTON COMPRESSOR

The Rolling piston in a rolling piston style compressor plays the part of a partition
between the vane and the rotor. reduce vibration and noise.
 25

A design without a spring is known as a swing compressor. In refrigeration and air

conditioning, this type of compressor is also known as a rotary compressor, with
rotary screw compressors being also known simply as screw compressors.

It offers higher efficiency than reciprocating compressors due to less losses from
the clearance volume between the piston and the compressor casing, its 40% to
50% smaller and lighter for a given capacity (which can impact material and
shipping costs when used in a product), causes less vibration, has fewer
components and is more reliable than a reciprocating compressor. But its structure
does not allow capacities beyond 5 refrigeration tons, is less reliable than other
compressor types, and is less efficient than other compressor types due to losses
from the clearance volume.

4.11 SCROLL COMPRESSOR

FIG 4.1.7 SCROOL COMPRESSOR.

 26A scroll compressor, also known as scroll
pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or
compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute,
archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably
than other types of compressors in the lower volume range. Often, one of the scrolls
is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and
pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls. Due to minimum
clearance volume between the fixed scroll and the orbiting scroll, these compressors
have a very high volumetric efficiency.
These compressors are extensively used in air conditioning and refrigeration because
they are lighter, smaller and have fewer moving parts than reciprocating compressors
and they are also more reliable. They are more expensive though, so peltier coolers
or rotary and reciprocating compressors may be used in applications where cost is
the most important or one of the most important factors to consider when designing
a refrigeration or air conditioning system.

4.12 DIAPHRAGM COMPRESSOR

FIG .4.1.8 DIAPHRAGAM COMPRESSOR

27
A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the
conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the
movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth
movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only
the membrane and the compressor box come in contact with the gas being
compressed. The degree of flexing and the material constituting the diaphragm
affects the maintenance life of the equipment. Generally stiff metal diaphragms may
only displace a few cubic centimeters of volume because the metal cannot endure
large degrees of flexing without cracking, but the stiffness of a metal diaphragm.
 28

CHAPTER – 5

5.1 UNIVERSAL JOINTS

FIG.5.1.1 JOINT
Universal joints allow drive shafts to move up and down with the suspension while
the shaft is moving so power can be transmitted when the drive shaft isn't in a straight
line between the transmission and drive wheels. Rear-wheel-drive vehicles have
universal joints (or U-joints) at both ends of the drive shaft.

5.2 HOOKE TYPE JOINTS

This type of joint is also called a Hooke-type coupling as it was developed from the
joint invented by Robert Hooke in the seventeenth century.
 29
This joint is commonly used today. The joints in Fig. 26.8A and B represent the
basic and developed forms respectively. They use two yokes set at 90 degrees to
each other and a cross-shaped trunnion block joins these yokes. In more developed
joints like Hardy Spicer type, contact between the two parts is made by needle roller
bearings held in a hardened steel cup retained in each arm of the yoke. For the
alignment of the trunnion, the bottom of the cup forms a contact with the end of the
block.

FIG 5.1.2 TYPES OF JOINTS

A special viscous oil, similar to that used in a final drive, is used for bearing
lubrication, which is contained in a reservoir formed by drilling out the center of the
arms. The oil is introduced by a lubrication hippie or is prefilled once for entire life.
An oil seal, retained on each arm of the block, prevenjts the escape of the lubricant.
The cups are held in the yoke either by circlips or staking.

30
when the joint is worn. These joints offer several advantages such as they are
compact, have high mechanical efficiency, have ability to drive through a large
occasional ‘bump’ angle (maximum about 25 degrees), and due to accurate
centering of shaft, are suitable for high speed operation. One major disadvantage of
the cross-type joint is its inadequate flexibility to absorb torsional shocks and drive-
line vibrations, especially when a comparatively rigid transmission system is used.
Lubrication failure, especially when a grease nipple in the trunnion block is missed,
causes the needle rollers to indent the bearing surfaces.

5.3 WHAT IS UNIVERSAL JOINTS

A universal joint, also known as U-joint, is a type of mechanical coupling that allows
two shafts to be connected and transmit torque while still being able to rotate freely
and move in different directions. This is achieved by using two yokes, each attached
to one of the shafts, and a cross-shaped connecting piece called a cross-pin that
links the two yokes together. The cross-pin is mounted in bearings in the yokes,
allowing it to rotate and swivel, allowing the shafts to move and rotate relative to
each other.Universal joints are commonly used in various applications, such as
drive shafts for vehicles, machinery for industrial processes, and other mechanical
systems where the flexible and versatile coupling is needed. The universal joint
diagram is given below.

5.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF UNIVERSAL JOINT

The working principle of a universal joint is based on using two yokes, each attached
to one of the shafts to be coupled, and a cross-shaped connecting piece called a cross-
pin that links the two yokes together.

31

When torque is applied to one of the shafts, it is transmitted through the universal
joint to the other shaft, causing it to rotate. As the relative orientation of the two
shafts changes, the cross-pin can rotate and swivel in the bearings in the yokes,
allowing the universal joint to accommodate these changes while transmitting torque
and allowing the shafts to rotate. This allows the universal joint to provide a
flexible and versatile coupling between the two shafts, allowing them to move and
rotate freely in different directions while transmitting torque.

5.5 TYPES OF UNIVERSAL JOINTS

There are several different types of universal joints, which vary in their
design and application. Some common types of universal joints include.

 Single Cardan joint:

 Double Cardan joint:
 Constant velocity joint:
 Hooke's joint:
 Cross and bearing joint:

Single Cardan joint: This is the most common type of universal joint, and it
consists of a single cross-shaped connecting piece that links the two yokes
together. This allows the joint to accommodate changes in the relative orientation
of the two shafts while transmitting torque and allowing them to rotate. There are
several different types of universal joints, which vary in their design and
application. Some common types of universal joints include. This is the most
common type of universal joint, and it consists of a single cross-shaped connecting
piece that links the two yokes together. This allows the joint to accommodate
changes in the relative orientation of the two shafts while transmitting torque and
allowing them to rotate.

32
Constant velocity joint: This type of universal joint is designed to maintain a
constant rotational velocity between the two shafts, even as their relative orientation
changes. This is achieved by using a series of small balls or rollers that are arranged
specially, allowing the joint to accommodate changes in orientation while
maintaining a constant velocity.

Hooke's joint: This type of universal joint uses a series of curved arms, or levers,
to link the two yokes together. This allows the joint to accommodate changes in
orientation while transmitting torque and allowing the shafts to rotate.

Cross and bearing joint: This type of universal joint uses a cross-shaped
connecting piece and a series of bearings to link the two yokes together. This
allows the joint to accommodate changes in orientation while transmitting torque
and allowing the shafts to rotate.

5.6 APPLICATIONS OF UNIVERSAL JOINTS

Universal joints are commonly used in various applications due to their ability to
accommodate changes in the relative orientation of the two shafts that are coupled
together while transmitting torque and allowing them to rotate. Some common
applications of universal joints include.

 In drive shafts for vehicles, such as cars, trucks, and tractors, the shaft must
be able to accommodate changes in orientation as the vehicle moves over
uneven terrain.
 Machinery for industrial processes, such as conveyor belts, mixers, and
other equipment, may require shafts that can move and rotate in different
directions.

33

 In robotics, universal joints are often used to connect the different parts of a
robot's body, allowing it to move and rotate freely.
 In other mechanical systems where flexible and versatile coupling is needed,
such as in cranes and other lifting equipment, marine propulsion systems,
and various other applications.
 In drive shafts for vehicles, such as cars, trucks, and tractors, the shaft must
be able to accommodate changes in orientation as the vehicle moves over
uneven terrain.
 Machinery for industrial processes, such as conveyor belts, mixers, and
other equipment, may require shafts that can move and rotate in different
directions.

 In power transmission systems, such as those used in wind turbines, the

shafts may be subject to large and varying forces, requiring a flexible and
versatile coupling.

 In robotics, universal joints are often used to connect the different parts of a
 robot's body, allowing it to move and rotate freely.

 In other mechanical systems where flexible and versatile coupling is needed,

such as in cranes and other lifting equipment, marine propulsion systems, and
various other applications

5.7ADVANTAGES OF UNIVERSAL JOINTS

Universal joints have several advantages over other mechanical couplings, making
them useful in various applications. Some of the main advantages of universal
joints include.

34
 Flexibility: Universal joints can accommodate changes in the relative
orientation of the two coupled shafts, allowing them to move and rotate
freely in different directions. This makes them ideal for applications where the
shafts may be subject to large and varying forces or need to move and rotate
in different directions.
 Versatility: Universal joints can transmit torque and allow the shafts to
rotate, making them useful for a wide range of applications where power
transmission or rotation is needed.
 Compactness: Universal joints are relatively small and compact, which
makes them easy to incorporate into a wide range of mechanical systems.
 Durability: Universal joints are typically designed to be robust and durable,
with high-quality bearings and other components that can withstand large
forces and long-term use.
 Cost-effectiveness: Universal joints are generally less expensive than other
types of couplings, which makes them an economical choice for many
 applications.

35 5.8 DISADVANTAGES OF
UNIVERSAL JOINTS

While universal joints have many advantages, they also have disadvantages. Some
of the main disadvantages of universal joints include

 Limited range of motion: Universal joints can only accommodate a limited

range of changes in the relative orientation of the two coupled shafts. This
means they may not be suitable for applications where the shafts may be
subject to large or extreme movements.
 Loss of power: Due to how universal joints are designed, some power is lost
as the torque is transmitted through the joint. This means that the shafts may
not rotate as efficiently as they would if coupled using a different type of
coupling.
 Noise and vibration: Universal joints can sometimes produce noise and
vibration as the shafts rotate, which may be undesirable in some
applications.
 Maintenance: Universal joints require regular maintenance and lubrication to
function properly and to maintain their durability and performance. This can
add to the overall cost and complexity of using universal joints in some
applications.

36 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION
 Identified and sourced high-quality spare parts for various bus models.
 Established partnerships with reliable suppliers and manufacturers.
 Developed an efficient inventory management system to ensure
availability of spare parts.
 Implemented a streamlined ordering and delivery process to
minimize downtime.
 Conducted thorough quality control checks to ensure the reliability
and durability of the spare parts.
 Provided excellent customer service and support to bus operators
and maintenance teams.