Signals and System

EC 205
 Unit 1
• Introduction: Basic concepts & definitions of continuous and discrete
time Signals & their classification, continuous & discrete time system
and their properties, elementary Signals. Linear time invariant
systems response for continuous time systems and discrete time
systems. Properties of continuous and discrete LTI systems. System
representation through differential equations and difference
equations.
To show a scaled input on a graph, its area is shown on the vertical axis. In
the diagram below the area of the impulse function is "A." For a scaled
impulse (i.e., A·δ(t)), the multiplier in front of the impulse is the area.
LTI-system Relationship between the time
domain and the frequency domain
System
representation
through
differential
equations
Unit 2
 Analysis of Continuous and Discrete -Time Signals

• Fourier Series
• Fourier Transform
• DTFT
 Periodic Function
• What is a periodic Function?
• A function which remains unchanged when time-shifted by one period
• f(t) = f(t + To) for all values of t

To To

• What is To
Properties of a periodic function 1
• A periodic function must be everlasting
• From –∞ to ∞
• Why?

• Periodic or Aperiodic?
Properties of a periodic function
• You only need one period of the signal to generate the entire
signal
• Why?
• A periodic signal can be expressed as a sum of sinusoids of
frequency F0 = 1/T0 and all its harmonics
Visualization
Can you represent this simple function using
sinusoids?
Single sinusoid
representation
• Trigonometric Fourier Series
• Exponential Fourier Series
Trigonometric
Fourier Series
• If a function has half-wave symmetry and symmetry about
the midpoint of the positive and negative half-cycles, the
periodic function is said to have quarter--wave symmetry.
Magnitude and
Phase spectra of
continuous time
signal
Magnitude and Phase spectra of discrete time signal
Unit 3
Important Properties of Laplace Transforms

1. Final Value Theorem

It can be used to find the steady-state value of a closed loop
system (providing that a steady-state value exists.

Statement of FVT:

lim y ( t ) = lim  sY ( s ) 
t → s →0

providing that the limit exists (is finite) for all

Re ( s )  0, where Re (s) denotes the real part of complex
variable, s.

204
Step, ramp,
impulse and
sinusoidal
excitations
Example
Solution
Cont.
Partial Fraction Expansions
Basic idea: Expand a complex expression for Y(s) into
simpler terms, each of which appears in the Laplace
Transform table. Then you can take the L-1 of both sides of
the equation to obtain y(t).
Example:
s+5
Y (s) = (3-41)
( s + 1)( s + 4 )
Perform a partial fraction expansion (PFE)
s+5 1 2
= + (3-42)
( s + 1)( s + 4 ) s + 1 s + 4

where coefficients 1 and  2 have to be determined.

220
To find 1 : Multiply both sides by s + 1 and let s = -1
s+5 4
 1 = =
s+4 s =−1 3

To find  2 : Multiply both sides by s + 4 and let s = -4

s+5 1
 2 = =−
s +1 s =−4 3

A General PFE
Consider a general expression,

N (s) N (s)
Y (s) = = (3-46a)
D(s) n
 ( s + bi )
i =1
221
Here D(s) is an n-th order polynomial with the roots ( s = −bi )
all being real numbers which are distinct so there are no repeated
roots.
The PFE is:
N (s) n
i
Y (s) = = (3-46b)
n s + bi
 ( s + bi ) i =1
i =1
Note: D(s) is called the “characteristic polynomial”.
Special Situations:
Two other types of situations commonly occur when D(s) has:
i) Complex roots: e.g., bi = 3  4 j (j −1 )
ii) Repeated roots (e.g., b = b = −3 )
1 2

For these situations, the PFE has a different form. See SEM
text (pp. 61-64) for details.
222
Example 3.2 (continued)

Recall that the ODE, y + +6 y + 11y + 6 y = 1, with zero initial

conditions resulted in the expression
1
Y (s) =
( )
(3-40)
s s + 6 s + 11s + 6
3 2

The denominator can be factored as

( )
s s 3 + 6 s 2 + 11s + 6 = s ( s + 1)( s + 2 )( s + 3) (3-50)
Note: Normally, numerical techniques are required in order to
calculate the roots.
The PFE for (3-40) is
1 1  2 3 4
Y (s) = = + + + (3-51)
s ( s + 1)( s + 2 )( s + 3) s s + 1 s + 2 s + 3
223
Solve for coefficients to get
1 1 1 1
1 = ,  2 = − ,  3 = ,  4 = −
6 2 2 6
(For example, find  , by multiplying both sides by s and then
setting s = 0.)
Substitute numerical values into (3-51):
1/ 6 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 6
Y ( s) = − + −
s s +1 s + 2 s + 3

Take L-1 of both sides:

−1 1/ 6  −1  1/ 2  −1  1/ 2  −1  1/ 6 
L Y ( s )  = L 
−1
 −L   +L   −L 
 s   s + 1 s + 2  s + 3 
From Table 3.1,
1 1 −t 1 −2t 1 −3t
y (t ) = − e + e − e (3-52)
6 2 224 2 6
 Example:

Suppose,
5s + 2
Y (s) = (3-34)
s ( 5s + 4 )
Then,
 5s + 2 
y (  ) = lim y ( t ) = lim   = 0.5
t → s →0  5s + 4 

2. Time Delay
Time delays occur due to fluid flow, time required to do an
analysis (e.g., gas chromatograph). The delayed signal can be
represented as
y ( t − θ ) θ = time delay
Also,
L  y ( t −225θ ) = e−θsY ( s )
Unit 4
The z-Transform
Introduction
Why z-Transform?
• A generalization of Fourier transform
• Why generalize it?
• FT does not converge on all sequence
• Notation good for analysis
• Bring the power of complex variable theory deal with the discrete-time
signals and systems
Definition
• The z-transform of sequence x(n) is defined by

X ( z) =  x ( n) z
n = −
−n

Fourier
Transform
⚫ Let z = e−j.

X (e ) = j
 x ( n )e
n =−
− j n
z-Plane


 x ( n) z
Im
−n
X ( z) =
z = e−j
n = −

 Re
j
X (e ) =  x ( n )e
n =−
− j n

Fourier Transform is to evaluate z-transform

on a unit circle.
z-Plane
Im
X(z)
z = e−j

Re

Im

Re
Periodic Property of FT

X(ej)
X(z)

−  

Im

Re Can you say why Fourier Transform is a periodic

function with period 2?
The z-Transform
Zeros and Poles
Definition

• Give a sequence, the set of values of z for which the

z-transform converges, i.e., |X(z)|<, is called the
region of convergence.

 
| X ( z ) |=  x (
n = −
n ) z −n
=  | x
n = −
( n ) || z | −n


ROC is centered on origin and

consists of a set of rings.
Example: Region of Convergence

 
| X ( z ) |=  x (
n = −
n ) z −n
=  | x
n = −
( n ) || z | −n


Im ROC is an annual ring centered on the

origin.

r
Re Rx − | z | Rx +

j
ROC = {z = re | Rx −  r  Rx + }
Stable Systems

• A stable system requires that its Fourier transform is

uniformly convergent.

Im ⚫ Fact: Fourier transform is to

evaluate z-transform on a unit
circle.
1
⚫ A stable system requires the
Re ROC of z-transform to include
the unit circle.
Example: A right sided Sequence

x ( n) = a n u ( n)

x(n)

... n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Example: A right sided Sequence

For convergence of X(z), we

x ( n) = a u ( n)
n
require that


 |
 −1
| az −1 | 1
X ( z) =  a u(n)z
n = −
n −n | az
n =0

 | z || a |
=  a n z −n 
1 z
n =0 X ( z ) =  (az ) =
−1 n
−1
=
 n =0 1 − az z−a
=  (az −1 ) n
| z || a |
n =0
Example: A right sided Sequence ROC for
x(n)=anu(n)

z
X ( z) = , | z || a | Which one is stable?
z−a

Im Im

1 1
−a a −a a
Re Re
Example: A left sided Sequence

x(n) = −a nu (−n − 1)

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
... n

x(n)
Example: A left sided Sequence

For convergence of X(z), we

x(n) = −a u (−n − 1)
n
require that
 
X ( z ) = −  a u (−n − 1)z
 z|
−1
−n
| a −1 z | 1
n

n = −
| a
−1
n =0
= −  a n z −n
n = −
| z || a |

= − a − n z n 
1 z
n =1 X ( z ) = 1 −  (a z ) = 1 −
−1 n
−1
=
 n =0 1− a z z − a
= 1 −  a −n z n
n =0 | z || a |
Example: A left sided Sequence ROC for
x(n)=−anu(− n−1)

z
X ( z) = , | z || a | Which one is stable?
z−a

Im Im

1 1
−a a −a a
Re Re
The z-Transform

Region of
Convergence
Represent z-transform as a Rational Function

P( z )
X ( z) =
where P(z) and Q(z) are
polynomials in z.
Q( z )

Zeros: The values of z’s such that X(z) = 0

Poles: The values of z’s such that X(z) = 
Example: A right sided Sequence

z
x ( n) = a n u ( n) X ( z) = , | z || a |
z−a
Im

ROC is bounded by the

pole and is the exterior
a
Re of a circle.
Example: A left sided Sequence

z
x(n) = −a nu (−n − 1) X ( z) = , | z || a |
z−a
Im

ROC is bounded by the

pole and is the interior
a
Re of a circle.
Example: Sum of Two Right Sided Sequences

x(n) = ( 12 ) n u (n) + (− 13 ) n u (n)

z z 2 z ( z − 121 )
X ( z) = + =
z−2 z+3
1 1
( z − 12 )( z + 13 )
Im
ROC is bounded by poles
and is the exterior of a circle.
1/12
−1/3 1/2 Re

ROC does not include any pole.

Example: A Two Sided Sequence

x(n) = (− 13 ) n u (n) − ( 12 ) n u (−n − 1)

z z 2 z ( z − 121 )
X ( z) = + =
z+3 z−2
1 1
( z + 13 )( z − 12 )
Im
ROC is bounded by poles
and is a ring.
1/12
−1/3 1/2 Re

ROC does not include any pole.

Example: A Finite Sequence

x ( n) = a n , 0  n  N −1
N −1 N −1
1 − (az −1 ) N 1 zN − aN
X ( z) =  a z n −n
=  ( az )
−1 n
= = N −1
n =0 n =0 1 − az −1 z z−a
Im
N-1 zeros
ROC: 0 < z < 
N-1 poles ROC does not include any pole.
Re
Always Stable
Properties of ROC
• A ring or disk in the z-plane centered at the origin.
• The Fourier Transform of x(n) is converge absolutely iff the ROC includes the unit circle.
• The ROC cannot include any poles
• Finite Duration Sequences: The ROC is the entire z-plane except possibly z=0 or z=.
• Right sided sequences: The ROC extends outward from the outermost finite pole in X(z) to z=.
• Left sided sequences: The ROC extends inward from the innermost nonzero pole in X(z) to z=0.
More on Rational z-Transform

Consider the rational z-transform

with the pole pattern:
Im

Find the possible a b c

ROC’s Re
 More on Rational z-Transform

Consider the rational z-transform

with the pole pattern:
Im
Case 1: A right sided Sequence.

a b c
Re
More on Rational z-Transform

Consider the rational z-transform

with the pole pattern:
Im
Case 2: A left sided Sequence.

a b c
Re
More on Rational z-Transform

Consider the rational z-transform

with the pole pattern:
Im
Case 3: A two sided Sequence.

a b c
Re
More on Rational z-Transform

Consider the rational z-transform

with the pole pattern:
Im
Case 4: Another two sided Sequence.

a b c
Re
Bounded Signals

5 5 5 1

a=0.4 a=0.9 a=1.2

0.5

0 0 0 0

-0.5
-5 -5 -5
-1
0 2 4 6 8

5 5 5 1
a=-0.4 a=-0.9 a=-1.2
1
0.5
0.8
0 0 0
0.6 0

0.4

-5 0.2 -5 -5 -0.5

0 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
0 -1
0 5 10 15 20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
BIBO Stability
• Bounded Input Bounded Output Stability
• If the Input is bounded, we want the Output is bounded, too
• If the Input is unbounded, it’s okay for the Output to be unbounded
• For some computing systems, the output is intrinsically bounded
(constrained), but limit cycle may happen
The z-Transform
Important
z-Transform Pairs
 Z-Transform Pairs

Sequence z-Transform ROC

(n) 1 All z
All z except 0 (if m>0)
( n − m ) z −m
or  (if m<0)
1
| z | 1
u (n) 1 − z −1
1
− u (−n − 1) | z | 1
1 − z −1

1
n | z || a |
a u (n) 1 − az −1
1
− a n u (− n − 1) | z || a |
1 − az −1
Z-Transform Pairs

Sequence z-Transform ROC

1 − [cos 0 ]z −1
[cos 0 n]u (n) | z | 1
1 − [2 cos 0 ]z −1 + z − 2

[sin 0 ]z −1
[sin 0 n]u (n) | z | 1
1 − [2 cos 0 ]z −1 + z − 2

1 − [r cos 0 ]z −1
[r n cos 0 n]u (n) | z | r
1 − [2r cos 0 ]z −1 + r 2 z −2

[r sin 0 ]z −1
[r n sin 0 n]u (n) | z | r
1 − [2r cos 0 ]z −1 + r 2 z −2

a n 0  n  N −1 1− aN z−N
 | z | 0
0 otherwise 1 − az −1
Some Common z-Transform Pairs
Sequence Transform ROC
1. [n] 1 all z
2. u[n] z/(z-1) |z|>1
3. -u[-n-1] z/(z-1) |z|<1
4. [n-m] z-m all z except 0 if m>0 or ฅ if m<0
5. anu[n] z/(z-a) |z|>|a|
6. -anu[-n-1] z/(z-a) |z|<|a|
7. nanu[n] az/(z-a)2 |z|>|a|
8. -nanu[-n-1] az/(z-a)2 |z|<|a|
9. [cos0n]u[n] (z2-[cos0]z)/(z2-[2cos0]z+1) |z|>1
10. [sin0n]u[n] [sin0]z)/(z2-[2cos0]z+1) |z|>1
11. [rncos0n]u[n] (z2-[rcos0]z)/(z2-[2rcos0]z+r2) |z|>r
12. [rnsin0n]u[n] [rsin0]z)/(z2-[2rcos0]z+r2) |z|>r
13. anu[n] - anu[n-N] (zN-aN)/zN-1(z-a) |z|>0
Signal Type ROC
Finite-Duration Signals
Causal
Entire z-plane
Except z = 0

Anticausal
Entire z-plane
Except z = infinity
Two-sided Entire z-plane
Except z = 0
And z = infinity
Causal Infinite-Duration Signals

|z| > r2
Anticausal

|z| < r1
Two-sided

r2 < |z| < r1

The z-Transform
Inverse z-Transform
Inverse Z-Transform by Partial Fraction Expansion

• Assume that a given z-transform can be expressed as

M

b z k
−k
M −N N
Ak s
Cm
X (z ) = k =0 X(z) =  Brz−r +  + 
N k =1,k  i 1 − dk z
−1
(
m =1 1 − d z
−1
)
m

a z
r =0
−k i
k
k =0

• Apply partial fractional expansion

• First term exist only if M>N
• Br is obtained by long division
• Second term represents all first order poles
• Third term represents an order s pole
• There will be a similar term for every high-order pole
• Each term can be inverse transformed by inspection
Partial Fractional Expression

M −N N
Ak s
Cm
X(z) = B z −r
+  + 
r =0
r
k =1,k  i 1 − dk z
−1
(
m =1 1 − d z
i
−1
)
m

• Coefficients are given as

( )
Ak = 1 − dk z −1 X(z ) z = d
k

Cm =
1
(s − m)! (− di ) s −m
 ds −m

dw s −m
(1− diw )s
X w −1 
 ( )
 w = di−1

• Easier to understand with examples

Example: 2nd Order Z-Transform

X (z ) =
1 1
ROC : z 
 1 −1  1 −1  2
1 − z 1 − z 
 4  2 

A1 A2
X(z ) = +
 1 −1   1 −1 
1 − z  1 − z 
 4   2 

• Order of nominator is smaller than denominator (in terms of z-1)

• No higher order pole

 1  1
A1 = 1 − z −1 X(z ) = = −1
 4  1  1 1 
−1

z=
4 1 −  
 2  4  

 1  1
A 2 = 1 − z −1 X(z ) = =2
 2  1  1  1  
−1
z=
2 1 −  
 4  2  

Example Continued

−1 2 1
X(z ) = + z 
 1 −1   1 −1  2
1 − z  1 − z 
 4   2 

• ROC extends to infinity

• Indicates right sided sequence

n n
1 1
xn = 2  un -   un
2  4
Example #2

X(z ) =
1 + 2z −1 + z −2
=
1 + z −1 ( )
2

z 1
3 1 1
(
1 − z −1 + z −2 1 − z −1  1 − z −1
2 2 2
)
 

− 1 + 5z −1
• Long division to obtain Bo X(z ) = 2 +

1 − 2 3 −1
2  1 −1 
1 − z  1 − z
2
−1
( )
−2
z − z + 1 z + 2z
−1
+1  
2 2
z −2 − 3z −1 + 2 A1 A2
X(z ) = 2 + +
1 −1 1 − z −1
5z −1 − 1 1− z
2

 1 
A1 = 1 − z −1 X(z )
 2  1
= −9 ( )
A 2 = 1 − z −1 X(z )
z =1
=8
z=
2
Example #2 Continued
9 8
X(z ) = 2 − + z 1
1 −1 1 − z −1
1− z
2

• ROC extends to infinity

• Indicates right-sides sequence

n
1
xn = 2n − 9  un - 8un
2
An Example – Complete Solution

3z 2 − 14z + 14 c1 c
U(z) = U(z) = c0 + + 2
z 2 − 6z + 8 z −2 z −4
3z 2 − 14z + 14
c0 = limU(z) = lim =3
z → z → z 2 − 6z + 8

3z 2 − 14z + 14
U2(z) = (z − 2)
z 2 − 6z + 8 3  2 2 − 14  2 + 14
c1 = U2(2) = =1
3z 2 − 14z + 14 2-4
=
z-4
3  42 − 14  4 + 14
2
3z − 14z + 14 c2 = U4(4) = =3
U4(z) = (z − 4) 4-2
z 2 − 6z + 8
3z 2 − 14z + 14
=
z-2

1 3 3, k=0
U(z) = 3 + + u(k) =  k −1 k −1
z −2 z −4 2 + 3  4 , k  0
Inverse Z-Transform by Power Series Expansion

• The z-transform is power series 

X(z ) =  xn z
n = −
−n

• In expanded form
X (z ) =  + x− 2 z 2 + x− 1 z1 + x0 + x1 z −1 + x2 z −2 + 
• Z-transforms of this form can generally be inversed easily
• Especially useful for finite-length series
• Example
 1
2

( )(
X(z ) = z2 1 − z −1  1 + z −1 1 − z −1 )  1 n = −2
 1
 
 − 2 n = −1
1 1 
= z 2 − z − 1 + z −1 xn =  − 1 n = 0
2 2  1
 2 n=1
1 1  0
xn = n + 2 − n + 1 − n + n − 1  n=2
2 2
Z-Transform Properties: Linearity

• Notation xn ⎯
⎯Z
→ X(z ) ROC = R x

ax1 n + bx 2 n ⎯ → aX1 (z ) + bX 2 (z )

• Linearity Z
⎯ ROC = R x1  R x2

• Note that the ROC of combined sequence may be larger than either ROC
• This would happen if some pole/zero cancellation occurs
• Example:
xn = a un - a un - N
n n

• Both sequences are right-sided

• Both sequences have a pole z=a
• Both have a ROC defined as |z|>|a|
• In the combined sequence the pole at z=a cancels with a zero at z=a
• The combined ROC is the entire z plane except z=0
• We did make use of this property already, where?
Z-Transform Properties: Time Shifting

xn − no  ⎯
⎯Z
→ z −no X(z ) ROC = R x

• Here no is an integer
• If positive the sequence is shifted right
• If negative the sequence is shifted left
• The ROC can change the new term may
• Add or remove poles at z=0 or z=
• Example
 
 1  1
X(z ) = z 
−1
 z 
1
 1 − z −1  4
 
 4 

n-1
1
xn =   un - 1
 4
Z-Transform Properties: Multiplication by Exponential

zon xn⎯→
Z
X ( z / zo ) ROC = zo Rx

• ROC is scaled by |zo|

• All pole/zero locations are scaled
• If zo is a positive real number: z-plane shrinks or expands
• If zo is a complex number with unit magnitude it rotates
• Example: We know the z-transform pair
1
un ⎯
⎯Z
→ ROC : z  1
1 - z-1
xn = rn cos(on)un =
2
(
1 jo n
re ) 1
( )
un + re− jo un
2
n

1/2 1/2
X(z) = + z r
1 − re jo z −1 1 − re− jo z −1
Z-Transform Properties: Differentiation
dX(z)
nxn ⎯
⎯Z
→ −z ROC = R x
dz
• Example: We want the inverse z-transform of
(
X(z ) = log 1 + az −1 ) z  a

• Let’s differentiate to obtain rational expression

dX(z) − az −2 dX(z) −1 1
=  −z = az
dz 1 + az −1 dz 1 + az −1
• Making use of z-transform properties and ROC

nxn = a(− a) un − 1

n −1

an
xn = (− 1) un − 1
n −1

n
Z-Transform Properties: Conjugation

x* n ⎯
⎯Z
→ X * z* ( ) ROC = R x

• Example

X(z ) =  xn z
n = −
−n


   
X (z ) =   xn z −n  =

 x 
n zn

 n = −  n = −

( )  x n (z ) =  x n z  
 

X z =   n   −n
= Z x n
n = − n = −
Z-Transform Properties: Time Reversal
1
x− n ⎯
⎯Z
→ X(1 / z) ROC =
Rx
• ROC is inverted
• Example:
xn = a−nu− n

anun
• Time reversed version of

1 - a-1z −1
X(z) = = z  a−1
1 − az 1 - a-1z −1
 Inverse Z-Transform

Residue Theorem
IZT obtained by evaluating the contour integral:

• Where C is the path of integration enclosing all the poles of X(z).

Cauchy’s residue theorem:
• Sum of the residues of z n-1X(z) at all the poles inside C
• Every residue Ck, is associated with a pole at pk

• m is the order of the pole at z=pk

• For a first-order pole:
 Inverse Z-Transform

Example:
Find the inverse z transform :

Single pole @ z=0.5, second-order pole @ z=1

 Inverse Z-Transform

Combining the results we have:

x(n)=2[(n-1)+(0.5)n]
No need to use inverse tables!!!

Comparison of the inverse z-transform

❖ Power series:
Does not lead to a closed form solution, it is simple, easy computer implementation
❖ Partial fraction, residue:
• Closed form solution,
• Need to factorize polynomial (find poles of X(z))
• May involve high order differentiation (multiple poles)
❖ Partial fraction : Useful in generating the coefficients of parallel structures for digital
filters.
❖ Residue method : widely used in the analysis of quantization errors in discrete-time
systems.
Unit 5
Fourier Transform of a Sampled Signal

• The Fourier series of our sampled signal, xs(t) is:


1
x s (t ) = p(t ) x(t ) =  x(t )e jk0t
k = − T

• Recalling the Fourier transform properties of linearity (the transform of a sum is the sum
of the transforms) and modulation (multiplication by a complex exponential produces a
shift in the frequency domain), we can write an expression for the Fourier transform of
our sampled signal:

Xs e( )j   1
= Fp (t ) x(t ) = F   x(t )e jk0t  1 

 =  F x(t )e 0
jk t

k = − T  T k = −
1 
=  X (e j ( − k0 ) )
T k = −

• If our original signal, x(t), is bandlimited: X (e j ) = 0 for   B

Signal Reconstruction

• Note that if  s  2, B
the replicas of ( )
e jnot
Xdo overlap in the frequency domain. We can
recover the original signal exactly.

• The sampling frequency, s = 2 B, is referred to as the Nyquist sampling frequency.

• There are two practical problems associated with this approach:
▪ The lowpass filter is not physically realizable. Why?
▪ The input signal is typically not bandlimited. Explain.
Signal Interpolation

• The frequency response of the lowpass, or interpolation, filter is:

j T , − B    B
H (e ) = 
 0, elsewhere
• The impulse response of this filter is given by:
BT sin (Bt /  ) BT
h(t ) =  sinc(Bt/πB −   t  
 (Bt /  ) 
• The output of the interpolating filter is given by the convolution integral:

y (t ) = h(t ) * x s (t ) =  x ( )h(t −  )d
−
s

 
   
=    x(nT ) (t − nT )h(t −  )d =   x(nT ) (t − nT )h(t −  )d
−  n = −  − n = −
 
=   x(nT ) (t − nT )h(t −  )d
n = − − 
• Using the sifting property of the impulse:
 
y (t ) =   x(nT ) (t − nT )h(t −  )d
n = − − 

=  x(nT )h(t − nT )
n = −
•END