CURRENT ELECTRICITY

3.1 cURRENT ELECTRICITY If the current is steady i.e., the rate of flow of charge
does not change with time, then
1. What is current electricity ?
Current electricity. n chapters 1and 2, we studied
the phenomena associated with the electric charges at
rest. The physics of charges at rest now is called current = Electric charge
shall study 0r Electric
electrostatics or static electricity. We Time
the motion or dynamics of charges. As the term current
implies some sort of motion, so the motion of electric in where Q is the charge that flows across the given area
charges constitutes an electric current. time t.
Lightning, which is the flow of electric charge
The study of electric charges in motion is caled eurrent betweentwo coudsorfrom acloud to the earth, is an
electricity. of short
example of a transient current (a current
3.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT duration). But the charges flow in a steady manner in
devices like a torch, cell-driven clock, transistor radios,
2. Define electric current. hearing aids, etc.
Electric current. If two bodies charged to different 3. Give the SI unit of current.
potentials are connected together by means of a SIunit of current is ampere. If one coulomb of charge
conducting wire, charges begin to flow from onebody crosses an area in one second, then the current through that
to another. The charges continue to flow till the area is one ampere (A).
potentials of the two bodies become equal. lcoulomb
The flouof electriccharges through aconductor constitutes l ampere= 1 second
an electric current. Quantitatively, electric current in a
conductor across an area held perpendicular to the direction 1A =1Cs-.
or
of flowof charge is defined as the amount of charge florwing
across that area per unit time. Ampere is one basic Sl unit. We shall formally define it
If acharge aQ passes through an arva in time t to in chapter 4 in terms of magnetic effect of curent.
t+ At, then the current I at time t is given by Smaller currents are expressed in following units :
I= lim AQ_dQ lmilliampere =1 mA =10A
At’0 At dt
Imicroampere -1 A =10A
(3.1)
3.2 PHYSICS-XII

The orders of magnitude of some electric currents Examples based on

we come across in daily life are as follows: Definitions of Electric Current
Current in a domestic appliance-1A Formulae Used
Current carried by a lightning 10* A 1. Electric current= Charge or I=?
Current in our nerves -10°A =luA. Time
2. As q= ne, so l
4. Distinguish between conventional and electronic
currents.
3. In case of an electron revolving in a circle of radius
Conventional and electronic currents. By con rwith speed v, period of revoBution of the electron is
vention, the direction of motion of positive charges is 2rr
taken as the direction of electric current. However, a
T=
negative charge moving in one direction is equivalent to Frequency of revolution, v=
an equal positive charge moving in the opposite
direction, as shown in Fig. 3.1. As the electrons are Current at any point of the orbit is
negatively charged particles, so the direction of electronic I=Charge flowing in I revolution
current (.e, the current constituted by the flow of *No. of revolutions per second
electrons) is opposite to that of the conventional I= ev=
current. 2rr
Units Used
Conventional current Electronic current
Electric charge is in coulomb (C), time in second
(S), and current in ampere (A)
Constant Used
Charge on an electron, e= 1.6 x 10-1C.
Fig. 3.1 Flow of negative charge is equivalent to the flow of
positive charge in the opposite direction. Example 1.10" electrons, each having a charge of
1.6x 10"C pass fromapoint Atowards another point Bin
5. Is electric current a scalar or vector quantity ? 0.1 s What is the current in ampere ? What is its direction ?
Electric current is a scalar quantity. Although Solution. Here n=100, e=1.6x 10 -C,t =0.1 s
electric current has both magnitude and direction, yet Current,
it is a scalar quantity. This is because the laws of ne 1020x 1.6x 10-19 C=160 A.
ordinary algebra are used to add electric currents and 0.1s
the laws of vector addition are not applicable to
the addition of electric currents. For example, in The direction of current is from B to A.
Fig. 3.2, two different currents of 3Aand 4Aflowing Example 2. Show that one ampere is equivalent to aflowof
in two mutually perpendicular wires AO and BO meet 6.25 x10 elementary charges per second. (CBSE D92C]
at the junction O and then flow along wire OC. Solution. Here I =lA, t=1s, e=1.6x 10-19 C
The current in wire OC is 7 A which is the scalar
addition of 3 A and 4 A and not 5 A as required by As I=9= ne
vector addition.
:. Number of electrons,
1x1
n= It 6.25 x 108.
A
e 1.6x 10-19

Example 3. How many electrons pass through a lamp in

90° 7A one minute, if the current is 300 mA?
[Himachal 95; Punjab 021
1A
Solution. I=300 mA =300 ×10A,
t=l minute =60 s, e=l.6x 10-1c
As 19_ne
Fig. 3.2 Addition of electric currents is scalar. tt
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.3

. Number of electrons, Solution. Amount of charge that flows in 10 s

It 300x 10x60 =1.125 x 1020 = Area under the I-t graph
1=
1.6x 10-19 -x 5x 5 +(10 -5) 5= 37.5 C
Example 4. How many electrons per second flow through a Example 8. The amount of charge passing through cross
filament of a120 Vand 60 Welectric bulb ?Gien electric section of a toire is q(t)= at+bt +¢
pover is the product of voltage and current. () Write the dimensional formulae for a, b and c.
Solution. Here V=120V, P=60 W, t-ls (ii) If the values of a, b and c in SI units are 5, 3 and 1
As P= V, therefore, I = P60 =0.5 A respectively, find the value of current at t =5 second.
Number of electrons,
V120 Solution. (1) Given q(t) =at + bt +c
It 0.5 x 1 Dimension of a =
n= -3.125 x 108
1.6 x 10- 19 AT -A
Example 5. In the Bohr model of hydrogen atom, the
Dimension of b T
electron revolves around the nucleus in a circular path of Dimension of c =Lal= AT
radius 5.1 x 10 -m at afrequency of6.8 x 10 revolutions
per second. Calculate the equivalent current. ()Current. /= 9 d
dt(at +bt +c) =2at + b
Solution. Here r=5.1lx 10 m, At t=55, I=2x5x 5+3 =53 A.
v=6.8 x1ol5 rps, e=1.6 x10-19 C
roblems For Practice
Current,
|=ev=1.6 x 10-19 x6.8 x 1015 =1.088 x10 A. 1. One billion electrons pass from a point P towards
Example 6. In a Iydrogen atom, an electron moves in an another point Q in 10 s.What is the current in
ampere ? What is its direction ?
orbit ofradius 5.0 x10-ll mwith aspeed of 2.2 x 10 ns. (Ans. 1.6 x 10 A, direction of
Find the equivalent current. (Electronic charge =1.6 x10 current is from Q to P)
coulomb). [Roorkee s41
Solution. Here r= 5.0 x10-11m, If 2.25 x10 electrons pass through a wire in one
minute, find the magnitude of the current flowing
v=2.2 x10 ms, e=l6x 10c through the wire. [Punjab 02] (Ans. 0.6 A)
Period of revolution of electron, 3. A solution of sodium chloride discharges
2r_2zx 5.0x 10-11 6.1× 106 Na ions and 4.6 x 10o CI ions in 2s. Find
T
2.2 x 106 the current passing through the solution.
(Ans. 8.56 x 103 A)
2.2 x 10
Frequency, v= I 2nx 5.0 x 10-11 4. An electric current of 2.0 uA exists in a discharge tube.
How much charge flows across a cross-section of
2.2 x7x 1017 =7x 105 s-l the tube in 5 minutes? (Ans. 6.0 x10 C)
2x22 x 5 5. In a hydrogen atom, the electron makes about
Current, I=ev=l6 x 10-19 x7x 1015 .6 x10° revolutions per second around the nucleus.
-1.12 x 10 A. Determine the average current at any point on the
orbit of the electron. (Ans. 0.96 mA)
Example 7. Figure 3.3 shows a plot of current I through 6. An electron moves in a circular orbit of radius 10 cm
the cross-section of a wire over a time interval of 10 s Find with a constant speed of 4.0 x10° ms. Determine
the amount of I(A) the electric current at a point on the orbit.
charge that flows (Ans. 1.02 x 1012 A)
through the wire 54
during this time 7. In ahydrogen discharge tube, the number of
period. protons drifting across a cross-section per second is
[CBSE OD 15C] 1.1× 10, while the number of electrons drifting in
5 10 t(s)
the opposite direction across another cross-section
is 3.1 x 10 per second. Find the current flowing in
Fig. 3.3 the tube. (Ans. 0.672 A)
3.4 PHYSICS-XII
HINTS A steady flow of electric current in a conductor is
x1.6 x 10-19 maintained in a similar way. As shown in Fig. 3.5,
1. 1e_ 10 =1.6 x10A
positive charge flows spontaneously in a conductor
10
2.25 x 10x 1.6 x 1019 from higher potential (Ä) to lower potential (B) i.e., in
2. I =0.6 A the direction of the electric field. To maintain steady
60
current through the conductor, some external device
3. I= ations + anions=
(n* +n)e must do work at a steady rate to take positive charge
t from lower potential (B) to the higher potential (A)
(6.1x106 + 4.6x10Û)x 1.6 x 10-19
-8.56×10 A
Such a device is the source of electromotive force (emf)
2 which may be an electrochemical cell or an electric
generator. A source of emf transfers positive charge
4. q= It =2.0x10 x5x60 = 6.0×10c form lower potential to higher potential ie, in the
5. I=ve =0.6 x 1ox1.6x1019 opposite direction of the electric field. Clearly, acharge
=0.96 x 10 A=0.96 mA flow circuit is analogous to the water flow circuit.
6. T=
2nr 2r x0.10 1 4x1o
s . v=
4x 10 T 2rx 0.10 A Source of emf
4x 10 x 1.6x 10 19 BT-(Charge pump)
I=ve= -1.02 x10A.
2rt x0.10

7. I=1, + I = Fig. 3.5 Aclosed charge flow circuit.

(1.1x 10+3.1x108) x1.6 x1019 0.672 A. 3.4 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE : EMF
1
7. Define emfofa battery. Is it reallyaforce ?Whem is
3.3 MAINTENANCE OF STEADY CURRENT the enf ofabattery equal to the potential difference
IN A CIRCUIT
bettween its terminals ? Define emfof 1 volt.
Electromotive force. A battery is a device which
6. With the help of amechanical analogy, explain how maintains a potential difference between its two ter
the florw of electric current is maintained in anelectric circuit. minals Aand B
Maintenance of steady current in an electric circuit.
The flow of electric current in a circuit is analogous to
the flow of water in a pipe. As shown in Fig. 3.4,
suppose we wish to maintain a steady flow of water in
a horizontal pipe rom A to B As pressure at A is
higher than that at B so water flows spontaneously Fig. 3.6 Aschematic diagram of a battery.
from the upper tank to the lower tank. To maintain a Figure 3.6 show_ a schematic diagram of a battery.
steady flow, a water pump must do work at a steady a force (of non
rate to pump water back from the lower tank to the Due to certain chemical reactions, on the charges of the
upper tank. Obviously, the water pump makes water electrostatic origin) is exerted
flow from lower to higher pressure. It helps to maintain electrolyte. This force drives positive charges towards
terminal Aand negative charges towards terminal R
the pressure difference between Aand B
Suppose the force on a positive charge qis F As the
charges build up on the two terminals A and B a
potential difference is set up between them. An electric
field Eis set up in the electrolyte from Ato RThis field
Water
P exerts a force F=q Éon the charge 4, in the opposite
pump

B
direction of F, In the steady state, the charges stop
accumulating further and F, =F.
The work done by the non-electrostatic force during
the displacement of acharge qfrom Bto Ais
W-F, d
Fig. 3.4 Aclosed water flow circuit. where d is the distance between the terminals A and B
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.5

The work done per unit charge is In case of a closed circuit, we can define emf in
EW_E, d another way as follows :
The emfofa source may be defined as the energy supplied
by the source
The quantityEW/qis called the electromotive force complete in taking
circuit. Again,a unit positive
we note thatcharge once round the
or emf of the battery or any other source. Work done
emf=
The electromotive force of a source may be defined as or

the work done by the source in taking a unit positive charge Charge
from lover to the higher potential. Literally, emf means the force which causes the
flow of charges in a circuit. However, the term emf is a
If the two terminals of the battery are not connected misnomer. The emf is not a force at all. It is a special
externally, then case of potential difference, so it has the nature of work
E, = F=qE done per unit charge.
E,d= F, d=q Ed =qV Sl unit of emf is volt. If anelectrochemical cell suyplies
where V= Ed is the p.d. between the two terminals. Thus, an energy of 1 joule for the flow of 1 coulomb of charge
through thewhole circuit (including the cel), then its emf is
said to be one volt.
-=V
3.5 EMF vs. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Hence the emfof asource is equal to the maximum potential 8. Give important points of differences between
diference between its terminals when it is in the opem circuit electromotive force and potential difference.
i.e, when it is not sending any current in the circuit. Differences between electromotive force and
Basically, an electrochemical cell consists of two potential difference.
electrodes P and N immersed in an electrolyte, as
shown in Fig. 3.7 Electromotive force Potential difference
C D 1. Itisthework done by a It is the amount of work
source in taking a unit done in taking a unit
charge once round the charge from one point
complete circuit. of a circuit to another.
2. It is equal to the maxi- Potential difference
mum potential diffe- may exist between any
nce between the two
rence two points of a closed
terminals of asouroe when circuit.
it is in an open circuit.
Celll symbol 3. It exists even when the It exists only when the
circuit is not closed. circuit is closed.
4. It has non-electrostatic It originates from the
-Electrolyte origin. electrostatic field set up
by the charges accumu
lated on the two termi
Fig. 3.7 An electrochemical cell connected to an nals of the source.
external resistance and the symbolic representation. Here 5. It is a cause. When emf It is an effect.
V,-V =V,>0and V-V, -V<0. is applied in a circuit,
po difference is
The two electrodes exchange charges with the 6. It is equal to the sum of Every circuit
electrolyte. Consequently, the positive electrode P potential differences component has its own
develops a positive potential V, (V, >0)with respect to across all the compo- potential difference
its adjacent electrolyte marked A The negative nents of a circuit inclu- across its ends.
electrode Ndevelops a negative potential - V_ (V >0) ding the p.d. required
with respect to the adjacent electrolyte B When no to send current through
the cell itself.
current flows through the cell, the electrolyte has the 7. It is larger than the p.d. It is always less than the
same potential throughout, so that the potential dif across any circuit emf.
ference between the two electrodes Pand Nis element.
V, -(-V)= V, +V -E, the emf. 8. It is independent of the It is always less than the
external resistance in emf.
Obviously, V, +V >0. the circuit.
3.6 PHYSICS-XII

Fixed
3.6 OHM'S LAW : RESISTANCE resistor
or

9. State Om's law. Define resistance and state its SI unit. Variable O
Ohm's law. On the basis of his experimental resistor
observations, a German physicist George Simon Ohm Potential or
derived a relationship between electric current and divider
potential diference in 1828. This relationship is known
as Ohm's law and can be stated as follows :
Meters
The current flowing through a conductor is directly Voltmeter Ammeter Galvanometer
proportional to the potential difference applied across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical Fig. 3.9 Symbols for resistors and meters.
conditions remain unchanged.
Thus, Potential difference Current 10. Briefly explain how can we measure the resistance
VaI
of a wire.
Measurement of resistance. Fig. 3.10 shows a simple
Or V= RI
circuit for measuring the resistance of a wire. Here the
are connected in series with the
The proportionality constant R is called the resis- battery and ammeter
tance of the conductor. Its value is independent of V Wire and the voltmeter in parallel with it. The ratio of
the voltmeter reading (V) and the ammeter reading (I)
and I but depends on the nature of the conductor, its gives the resistance (R) of the wire.
length and area of cross-section and physical con- Battery Ammeter
ditions like temperature, etc. Ohm's law may also be
expressed as
-R
R
The graph between the
potential difference V
applied across a conductor V’
to the current I fowing Voltmeter
through it is a straight line, Fig. 3.8 V-I graph for an
as shown in Fig. 3.8. ohmic conductor. Fig. 3.10 To measure resistance of wire.
Resistance. The resistance of aconductor is the property
by virtue of which it opposes the flow of charges througi t. 3.7 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
RESISTANCE : RESISTIVITY
The more the resistance, the less is the curent I for a
given potential difference. It is equal to the ratio of the poten 11. What are the factors on which the resistance of a
tial diference aplied across the conductor to the current conductor depends ?Defne resistivity and state its Sl unit.
flowing through it. Thus Factors affecting the resistance. At a constant
V
temperature, the resistance of a conductor depends on
RT
SI unit of resistance is ohm (2). If the potential
the following factors:
1. Length. The resistance Rof a conductor is directly
difference(V)is 1volt and current (/) islampere, then proportional to its length ie,
the resistance (R) is 1 ohm. Rcl
1 volt
l ohm = 2. Area of cross-section. The resistance Rofa uniform
lampere conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross
or 19 =1 VA1. section A, ie.,
Rl
Thus, the resistance of aconductor is said to be 1ohm if A
a current of 1ampere flous through it on applying a 3. Nature of the material. The resistance of a
potential diference of 1volt across its ends. conductor also depends on the nature of its material.
Any material that has some resistance is called aresistor. For example, the resistance of a nichrome wire is
Pictorial symbols for resistors and meters are given in 60 times that of acopper wire of equal length and area
Fig. 3.9, of cross-section.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.7
Area =A
Combining the above factors, we get
R« or R=p
A A

wherep is the constant of proportionality called resistivity

or specific resistance of the material of the conductor. It
depends on the nature of the material of the conductor (a) (b)
and on the physical conditions like temperature and Fig. 3.11 Current density.
pressure but it is independent of its size or shape.
Resistivity or specific resistance. in the above . Current density,
equation, we take
I=lunit and A=1 square unit A, Acos
then R=p or I= jA cos 0=.Å
Thus, the resistivity or specific resistance of a material
may be defined as the resistance of a conductor of that This equation again shows that electric current,
material, having unit length and unit area of cross-section. being scalar product oftwo vectors, is ascalar quantity.
Or, it is the resistance offered by the unit cube of the material The SI unit of current density is amiper per square
of a conductor. metre (Am )and its dimensions are |
SI unit of resistivity. We can write NoTE The current I through a particular surface Sin
RxA
p= a conductor is the flux of through that surface and is
ohmx metre? given by the surface integral
SIunit of p= metre

= ohm meter (2 m)
Thus, the SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre (2 m). where dS is a small element of the given surface area.
Conductance. The conductance of a conductor is the
3.8 cURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTANCE ease with which electric charges flow through it. It is equal to
AND CONDUCTIVITY
the reciprocal of its resistance and is denoted by G.
12. Define the terns current density, conductance Thus,
and conductivity. Write their SI units. Express Ohm's Conductance =
law in vector form. Resistance
Current density. The current density at any point G=
1
inside aconductor is defined as the amount of charge flowing or R
per second through a nit area held normal to the direction of
the flow of charge at that point. It is avector quantity The SI unit of conductance is ohm or mho or
having the same direction as that of the motion of the siemens (S)
positive charge. It is a characteristic property of any Conductivity. The reciprocal of the resistivity of a
point inside the conductor and is denoted by . material is called its conductivity and is denoted by o.
Thus,
As shown in Fig. 3.11(a), if a current I is flowing 1
uniformly and normally through an area of cross Conductivity =
Resistivity
section Aof a conductor, then the magnitude of current
density at any point of this cross-section will be

A A The Sl unit of conductivity is ohm m or mhom1

If the area Ais not perpendicular to the direction of or Sm-1,
current and normal to this area makes angle with the
Vector form of Ohm's Law. If Eis the magnitude of
direction of current as shown in Fig. 3.11(6), then the electric field in a conductor of lengti , then the
component of A normal to the direction of current potential difference across its ends is
flow will be
A, = A
cos 0 V= El
 Uble 3.l
AP Electrical resistivities of
PHYSICS-XI
Or
some
As the
E- jp
Material Resiatstivity Temper substances
cient ofature coefi No. of
that of direction of current density j is 0Cpm) resistivity
at 0°C u d p
valence
equationelectric
as field electrons
d
E, we
can same as A. Conductors (C) per unit
write the above Silver 1.6 x 10-8
cell

Or Copper 1.7x 10-% 0.0041

Aluminium 2.7 x 10-8 0.0068
The Tungsten 0.0043
law. It isabove equation is the vector Iron
5.6 x 10-% 3

3.9
equivalent to the scalar
form
form
V =
of Ohm's
RI. Platinum
l0 x 10-%
11x 10-8
0.0045
0.0065
6

13.
CLASSI
HouU
FICATI
can we
ON
TERMS OF RESISTIVITY OF
MATERIALS IN
Mercury
Nichrome
(alloy of
98 x 10
100 x 10-8
0.0039
0.0009
10

resistivity values ? classify solids on the basis of their Ni, Fe, Cr) D.0004

Manganin
Classification
resistivity of solids on
values. The the basis of their (alloy of Cu,
Ni, Fe, Mn)
48 x 10-8
0.002 x 10-3

Table 3.1.
electrical
stances varies over a very
wide resistivity of sub B. Semiconductors
Various range, as shown in
three categories: substances
can be classified into
Carbon
(graphite)
3.5 x 105
-0.0005
1.
currentConductors.
The materials which conduct electric Germanium 0.46
fairly well are called -0.05

conductors.toThey have lowconductors. Metals are good Silicon 2300

-0.07
102m 106 Qm. resistivities in theerange of C. Insulators
the lowest
are used for resistivities ofCopper
all the
and aluminium have Pure water
metals, so their
wires
2.5 x 105

distances transporting electric current over large

without the appreciable loss
Glass
Hard Rubber
100- 104
the other hand of energy. On -10B6
nichrome has a resistivity of
times that of copper. It is used in the about 60 NaCl
electric heater and electric iron. elements of Fused quartz 10
2. Insulators. The
materials which do 14. What are the tuo common
electric current are called insulators. They not conduct
have high varieties of commercial
resistivity, more than 10* reststors?
mica, bakelite and hard 2m. Insulators like glass,
rubber have very high
Common commercial resistors. The
commercial
resistivities in the range 104m to 10l6 m. So they resistors are of two major types :
are used for blocking electric 1. Wire-bound resistors. These are
points.
current between two the wires of an alloy like manganin,made by winding
3. Semiconductors. These are the materials whose
nichrome on an insulating base. The constantan
advantage
or
of
using these alloys is that they are relatively insensitive
resistivitics lie in between those of conductors and insulators to temperature. But inconvenientiy large length is
i.e., between 10° 2m to 10*gm. Germanium and required for making a high resistance.
silicon are typical semiconductors. For moderately high 2. Carbon resistors. They are made from mixture of
resistances in the range of ka, resistors made of carbon black, clay and resin binder which are pressed
carbon (graphite) or some semiconducting material are and then moulded into cylindrical rods by heating. The
used. rods are enclosed in a ceramic or plastic jacket.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.9

The carbon resistors are widely used in electronic First significant figure
circuits of radio receivers, amplifiers, etc. They have Second significant figure
the following advantages : Decimal multiplier
(i) They can be made with resistance values rang Tolerance
ing from few ohms to several million ohms.
(i) They are quite cheap and compact.
(in) They are good enough for many purposes. )
3.10 coLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTORS Fig. 3.12 Meanings of four bands.
15. Describe the colour code used for carbon resistors. llustrations : 1. In Fig. 3.13, the colours of the four
Colour code for resistors, A colour code is used to bands are red, red, red and silver; the resistance value is
indicate the resistance value ofa carbon resistor and its Red Red Red Silver
percentage accuracy. The colour code used throughout
the world is shown in Table 3.2. 2 2 2 + 10%

Table 3.2 Resistor colour code R= 22x102 10%.

Letter os Red Red -Red
Colour an ald to Num Multi Colour Toler Silver
ber plier ance
memory
Black
Brown
B
B 1
10
10
10
Gold
Silver
5%
10%
Fig. 3.13
)
Red R 2 No fourth 20%
band
Orange 3 2. In Fig. 3.14, the colours of the four bands are
Yellow Y 4 yellow, violet, brown and gold ; the resistance value is
Green G 5 Yellow Violet Brown Gold
Blue B 6 10
4 7 1 + 5%
Violet V 7 107

Grey G 10 R=47x 10 2+59%.

White W 9 10 Violet Brown
Yellow -Gold
How to remember colour code :

B BRoY of Great Britain had Very Good Wife

012 34 6 Fig. 3.14
3. When there are only three coloured bands
There are too systems of marking the colour codes: printed on a resistor and there is no gold or silver
First system. A set of coloured co-axial rings or band, the tolerance is 20%. In Fig. 3.15, there are only
bands is printed on the resistor which reveals the three bands of green, violet and red colours ; the
following facts : resistance value is
1. The first band indicates the first significant figure. Green Violet Red No 4th band
2. The second band indicates the second significant
figure. 5 7 2 + 20%
3. The third band indicates the power of ten with R=57 x 10* 2 20%.
which the above two significant figures must be
multiplied to get the resistance value in ohms. Violet Red
Green
4. The fourth band indicates the tolerance or possible
variation in percent of the indicated value. If the -

fourth band is absent, it implies a tolerance of

+ 20% .
Fig. 3.15
3.10 PHYSICS-XII

Second System : Example 9. In a ischarge tube, the mumber of hydrogen

1. The colour of the body gives the first significant ions ie, protons) drifting across a cross-section per second
figure. is 1.0 x10, while the number of electrons drifting in the
-Body Ring opposite direction across another cross-section is 2.7 x108
per second. If the supply voltage is 230 V, what is the
effective resistance of the tube ? [NCERT|
End End
Solution. The current caried by a negatively charged
electron is equivalent to the current carried by a proton
Dot in the opposite direction, therefore, total current in the
Fig. 3.16 direction of protons is
l= Total charge flowing per second =(n, + n,)e
2. The colour of the end gives the second signi - (2.7 × 10 +1.0x 1o8 jx 1.6x 10-19
ficant figure.
3. The colour of the dot gives the number of zeroes =3.7 x1.6x 10 =0.592 A
to be placed after the second figure. Effective resistance,
4. The colour of the ring gives the tolerance or 230
2-388.5 0-3.9 x 10² 2.
percent accuracy of the indicated value. R= I0.592
Ilustration. Suppose for a given resistor, the body Example 10. A 10 V battery of negligible internal
colour is yellow, end colour is violet, dot colour is resistance is connected across a 200 Vbattery and a resis
orange and the ring colour is silver. tance of 38 2 as shown in the figure. Find the value of the
current in circuit. [CBSE D13|
Body End Dot Ring
Yellow Violet Orange Silver 10 V

4 7 3 + 10%

38 Q
.R=47x 10 9t 10% =47 kQt 10%.
200 V
Examples based on
Ohm's law, Resistance, Resistivity, 200-10
Solution. I R 38
=5 A.
Conductance, ConducIivity, Current Density and
Colour Code of Carbon Resistors Example 11. Acopper wire of radius 0.1 mm and
Formulae Used resistancel k2is connected across a power supply of 20 V.
V () How many electrons are transferred per second between
1. Ohm's law, R= or V= IR the supply and the wire at one end ? (ii) Write down the
current density in the wire.
2. Resistance of a uniform conductor, R=p Solution. Here r=0.1 mm =0.1x 10 m,
A
RA
3. Resistivity or specific resistance, R=1k2 -10° 2, V=20V
20
4. Conductance =R1 ) Current, I=
R 10
=0.02 A

1 No. of electrons,
5. Conductivity or
RA
Resistivity p
Current
6. Current density = or j= e e
Area A
0.02 x 1
7. Colour code of carbon resistors. Refer to Table 3.2. -1.25 x 1017
1.6x 10-19
Units Used
Potential difference V is in volt (V), current I in (i) Current density,
ampere (A), resistance R in ohm (2) resistivity p 0.02
in Qm, conductance in ohm or mho or siemens A 3.14 x(0.1 x 103
(S), conductivity-2in 2'mor Sm and current -6.37 x 10 Am 2
density j in Am
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.11

Example 12. Current flows through a constricted con Solution. Resistance of the arc lamp is
ductor, as shown in Fig. 3.17. The diameter D, =2.0 mm V 80
R= =82
and the current density to the left of the constriction is I 10
j=1.27 x10 Am2 (i) What current flows into the In order to use arc lamp with a source of 240 V, a
constriction ? (i) If the current density is doubied as it resistance R' should be connected in series with it so
emerges from the right side of the constriction, what is that current through the circuit does not exceed 10 A.
dianeter D, ? Then
I(R+ R')= V or 10(8 + R') =240
or R'=24-8 =16 2.
Example 15. Calculate the resistirity of a material of a
wire 10 mlong, 0.4 mm in diameter and having a resistance
of 2.0 S2. [Haryana 021
Fig. 3.17 Solution. Herel=10 m, r=0.2 mm-0.2 x10m,
Solution. Here D, =2.0 mm, j, =1.27 x10° Am, R=2
Resistivity,
() Current flowing into the constriction, p= Rx n2

2x 3.14 x(0.2 x 103 -2.513 x 10m.

10
=1.27 x109x 3.14 x(1 x 103 =3.987 A Example 16.The external diamneter of a 5 metre long
(i) For a steady flow of current, hollow tube is 10 cm and the thickness of its wall is 5mm If
the specific resistance of copper be 1.7 x 10 ohm-metre,
Or then determine its resistance.
Solution. The cross-sectional area of the tube is
or
A=n(-)
=3.14 x[(5x 10 -(4.5 x10]
or
- 14.9x 10 m?
Also, p=1.7x 10 Qm,1=5 m
Or D, -D, -0707 D, ::Resistance,
1_17x10x5
=0.707 x 2.0 mm =1.414 mm. R=p A 14.9x 10
Example 13. A current of 2 mnA is passed through a = 5.7x 102.
colour coded carbon resistor with first, second and thid a
rings of yellow, green and oange colours. What is the Example 17. Find the resistivity ofaconductor in which
toltage drop across the resistor ? current density of 2.5 Am is found to exist, when an
electric field of 15 Vm is applied on it. [ISCE 98]
Solution.
Solution. Here j =2.5 Am², E=15 Vm-1
Yellow Green Orange RA V A
4 5 3 Resistivity, p=TTI
R=45x 10 2 VIl _ E_15 =62 m.
|A j 2.5
Given 1=2 mA =2 x103 A
V= RI=45 x10 x2 x10- V=90 V. Example 18. Calculate the electrical conductivity of the
material of a conductor of length 3 m area of cross-section
Example 14. An arc lamp operates at 80 V, 10 ASuggest 0.02 mn? having a resistance of22.
a method to use it with a 240 V d.c. source. Calculate the Solution. Here =3 m, R=2 2,
value of the electric component required for this purpose. A=0.02 mm -0.02 x 10 m
|CBSE F 94|
3.12 PHYSICS-XIl

1
Electrical conductivity = Example 22. The resistance of awire is Rolm. What will
Resistivity be its new resistance if it is stretched to n times its original
length ?
or
RA 2x0.02 x 106 Solution. In both cases, volume of the wire is same.
V= Al= AT
-75 x105o'm1.
Example 19.A wire of resistance 4S2is used to wind acoil or A_"
of radius 7 an The wire has a diameter of 1.4 mm and the
specific resistance of its material is 2x 107 mFind the
number of turns in the coil. R' IA
Solution. Let n be the number of turns in the coil. R 4=.n=n
P
A
Then total length of wire used
=2n Rxn =2rx7x 10"xn metre Or R'= R.
Total resistance, Example 23. Acylindrical wire is stretched to increase its
R=p or
4-2x10x2nx7x 10-xn length by 10%. Calculate the percentage increase in
resistance.
A n(0.7x 10?
.n= 70.
Solution. New length, I-1+ 10% of 1
=l+0.1 l= 1,11
Example 20. A wire of 10 olm resistance is stretched to
thrice its original length. What will be its (i) new resistivity, or
and (ii) new resistance ? (CBSE D 98C]
Al= AT
Solution. () Resistivity p remains unchanged
because it is the property of the material of the wire. or A _!
(i) In both cases, volume of wire is same. So
V= A> = Al
A'_1_1_1
Or
A 3 [: I=l+2l =3/1) The percentage increase in resistance,
R'-R R
R R
100
R -1× 100 =(1.21-1)x100 =21%.
=9

PA Example 24. Two wires Aand B of equal mass and of the

same metal are taken. The diameter of the wire A is half the
Hence R' =9R =9x 10 =90 2. diameter of wire B. lf the resistance of wire A is 24 ,
Example 21.A wire has a resistance of 16 2. It is melted calculate the resistance of wire B.
and draon into a wie of half its length. Calculate the Solution. Mass of wire = volumex density
resistance of the new wire. What is the percentage change in = area of cross - sectionx lengthx density
its resistance
Solution. In both cases, volume of the wire is same.
:. m=n, d =nl d
V= AT = Al
or
AI _2

R
R P
p
A 1 1
R¡ R -x24 2= 1.5 2.
or
R=R=x
4 4 16 =49.
16 16

Change in resistance Example 25. Apiece of silver hasa resistance of 1S2. What
will be the resistance ofa constantan wire of one-thirdlength
R-R 100x 100 =75%. and one-halfdiameter, if the specific resistance ofconstantan
R 16 is 30 times that of silver ?
CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.13

Solution. For silver, 4. A metal wire of specific resistance 64 x10*2m

and length 1.98 m has a resistance of 7 2. Find its
R=

For constantan,
4p102 radius. (Ans. 2.4 x10m)
5. Calculate the resistance of a 2 m long nichrome wire
of radius 0.321 mm. Resistivity of nichrome is
R= 4p'! 4x 30 p x 3 15x10°2m. If a potential difference of 10 V is
applied across this wire, what will be the current in
the wire ? (Ans. 9.269, 1.08 A)
40 x 4p l - 40 R= 40 x 1=40 2. 6. An electron beam has an aperture of 1.0 mm. A
total of 6 x106 electrons flow through any
perpendicular cross-section per second. Calculate
Example 26. On applying the same potential difference () the curent and () the current density in the
betveen the ends of wires of iron and copper of the same electron beam.
length, the same current flows in them. Compare their radi. [Ans. () 9.6 x10 A(ii) 96x10° Am 1
Specific resistances of iron and copper are respectively
1.0x 10-7 and 1.6 x 10m Can their current-densities 7. Calculate the electric field in a copper wire of
be made equal by taking appropriate radii ? cross-sectional area 20 mm carrying a current of
Solution. On applying same potential difference,
1A. The resistivity of copper =1.7 x10° m.
same current flows in the two wires. Hence the (Ans. 0.85 x102 Vm')
resistances of the two wires should be equal. A given copper wire is stretched to reduce its
1 diameter to half its previous value. What would be
But
R=p-P its new resistance ? [CBSE D 92C]
(Ans. R' = 16 R)
For the two wires of same length I, we have 9. What will be the change in resistance of a
and constantan wire when its radius is made half and
length reduced to one-fourth of its original length ?
(Ans. No change)
As R=R
10. A wire of resistance 52 is uniformly stretched until
its new length becomes 4 times the original length.
Find its new resistance. (Ans. 80 S)
1.0 x10-7 11. A metallic wire of length 1 m is stretched to double
iron= Piron |1.6x 105 -2.5. its length. Calculate the ratio of its initial and final
Copper Popper resistances assuming that there is no change in its
No, current densities cannot be equal because they density on stretching. [CBSE D 94]
depend on nature of the metals. (Ans. 1:4)
12. A wire of certain radius is stretched so that its
roblems For Practice radius decreases by a factor n Calculate its new
resistance. (Ans. n R)
1. A voltage of 30 V is applied across a colour coded 13. A wire 1m long and 0.13 mm in diameter has a
carbon resistor with first, second and third rings of resistance of 4.22. Calculate the resistance of
blue, black and yellow colours. What is the current another wire of the same material whose length is
flowing through the resistor ? ICBSE D 05]
1.5 m and diameter 0.155 mm. (Ans. 4.4)
(Ans. 0.5 x10A)
14. A
rheostat has 100 turns of a wire of radius 0.4 mm
2. A potential difference of 10 V is applied across a having resistivity 4.2 x 10 2m. The diameter of
conductor of resistance 1k2 Find the number of
each turm is 3 cm. What is the maximum value of
electrons flowing through the conductor in resistance that it can introduce ? (Ans. 7.875 2)
5 minutes. (Ans. 1.875 x 10)
3. What length of a copper wire of cross-sectional area 15. Given that resistivity of copper is 1.68 x10 Qm.
0.01 mm²would be required to obtain a resistance Calculate the amount of copper required to draw a
wire 10 km long having resistance of 10 2. The density
of 1k2? Resistivity of copper = 1.7x10*Am. of copper is 8.9 x10'kgm (Ans. 1495.2 kg)
(Ans. 588.2 m)
3.14 PHYSICS-XI

16. The size of a carbon block is 1.0 cm xl.0 cm x50 cm. 9. R=p=P
Find its resistance (i) between the opposite
square faces (in) between the opposite rectangular 1|4
faces of the block. The resistivity of carbon is R'=P (r/2)²
3.5x10°2cm. (Ans. 0.1759, 7.0x 105)
17. Two wires A and B of the same material have their 10. R=p52
lengths in the ratio 1:5 and diameters in the ratio 41
3:2.If the resistance of the wire Bis 180 g, find the R'=p A/4 l6p 16 R=16x5=802
resistance of the wire A. (Ans. 16)
18. A uniform wire is cut into four segments. Each 11. R=pA
segment is twice as long as the earlier segment. If 21
the shortest segment has a resistance of 49, find the R'=p
A/2
4pR
resistance of the original wire. (Ans. 60 2)
R: R'=1:4
19. Calculate the conductance and conductivity of a
wire of resistance 0.012, area of cross-section 12. V= A=Al
10m² and length 0.1m. [Haryana 20001
(Ans. 100 s, 10° Sm1) or
v or I'=I
HINTS
1. R=60 x10 2 V=30 V
V 30
R'=pP n(r/n
I= =0.5 x10 A
R 60x 10* 13.
10 v 10 V
2. 1V -=10A
R 1k9 1000 9 0.13 x103 72
-4.4).
n _ t 10x5x60 1.875 x10!9 0.155 x10
l6x 10-9 14. Length of the wire used, I= 100 D
4. As R=Pp 100 D 100 p D
A R=p
pl 64x 10x1.98x7 -5.76x10m? 100 x4.2 x10x3x102
R 22 x7 -7.875 Q.
(0.4×10
or r= 2.4 x10 m.
V 15. As R=pA
5. Use R=p- and I=
x10x 10
. A P68 x 10
R
=1.68x 10 m?
I1ne6x10° xL6x10-19 R 10
6. )
Mass of copper required,
=9.6x10A. m= Volume xdensity = Al xdensity
(i)Current density, -1.68x 10ox10x 10x8.9x 10
I9.6x 10 =9.6 x 10 Am 2 -1495.2 kg
A 1.0x 106 x50x10-2
IR Ipl Ip l6. ) R=p3.5x10 -0.175 Q.
7. E=TA A 1x1.7x108 20x10-6
A 1.0 x 10 x1.0x 102
() R=p3.5x 10x1.0x10-2
=0.85 x10oVm, =7.0x10So.
A 1.0x 10 x50 x10"2
8. When the diameter of the wire is reduced to its half
value, area of cross-section becomes one-fourth and
17.
the length increases to four times the original
length.
l6pA 16 R.
4
A
4
A R 45 R 45 180 =162.