The 802.

3 MAC sub layer

protocol:
I) Preamble:Each frame starts with
a preamble of 7 bytes each
containing a bit pattern10101010.
II) Start of frame byte: It denotes
the start of the frame itself. It
contains 10101011.
III) Destination address: This gives
the destination address. The
higher order bit is zero for
ordinary address and 1 for group
address (Multi-casting). All bits in
the destination field frame will be
delivered to all stations (Broad
casting). The 46th bit (adjacent to
the high-order bit) is used to
distinguish local from global
addresses.
IV) Length field: This tells how
many bytes are present in the
data field from 0 to 1500.
V) Data field: This contains the
actual data that the frame
contains.
VI) Pad: Valid frame must be 64
bytes long from destination to
checksum. If the frame size less
than 64 bytes pad field is used to
fill out the frame to the minimum
size.
VII) Checksum: It is used to find
out if the receiver frame is correct
or not. CRC will be used here.

This principle, introduced by

Bellman in 1957, states that if
router J lies on the optimal path
from router I to router K, then the
optimal path from J to K also
follows the same route. This can
be explained by considering
routes from I to J (r1) and from J
to K (r2). If a better route than r2
existed from J to K, it could be
combined with r1 to create a
superior route from I to K,
contradicting the optimality of
r1r2.
Sink Tree: The sink tree is a
tree-like structure formed by
optimal routes from all sources to
a specific destination, adhering to
the optimality principle. Sink trees
play a central role in routing
algorithms, helping efficiently
route packets in networks fig(b).
Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs):
Sink trees can extend to become
DAGs if all possible paths are
considered, allowing for more
flexibility in route selection.
However, the fundamental
structure of a sink tree is retained
in DAGs.
Network Dynamics: In practice,
network dynamics, such as link
and router failures, can affect the
stability and accuracy of sink
trees. Routers may have varying
views of the current topology,
leading to dynamic adjustments in
the sink tree.

Routing algorithms often rely on

local knowledge rather than a
complete network view. One basic
local technique is "flooding,"
where every incoming packet is
sent out on all outgoing lines
except the one it arrived on.To
control the potential chaos of
flooding, a hop counter is added
to each packet's header,
decrementing with each hop until
the packet is discarded when the
counter hits zero. Ideally, the hop
counter should be initialized to the
estimated path length from source
to destination.To further manage
flooding, routers keep track of
flooded packets to avoid
duplication. This can be achieved
by having source routers include
sequence numbers in their
packets and maintaining lists of
seen sequence numbers for each
source. While not practical for
most packets, flooding has its
uses. It ensures delivery to every
node in the network, making it
useful for broadcasting
information and maintaining
robustness, even in challenging
conditions. Flooding's minimal
setup requirements also make it a
foundational element for more
efficient routing algorithms and a
valuable metric for performance
comparisons. Flooding inherently
chooses the shortest path, as it
explores all possible paths
simultaneously.

The Link State Routing concept

comprises five key steps for
routers
to function effectively: 1. Neighbor
Discovery: Routers identify their
neighboring devices and learn
their network addresses. 2.
Distance Metric Assignment: Each
router assigns distance or cost
metrics to its neighboring routers.
3. Packet Construction: Routers
construct packets containing the
information they've gathered. 4.
Packet Exchange: These packets
are sent to and received from all
other routers in the network. 5.
Shortest Path Computation:
Routers calculate the shortest
path to reach every other router in
the network.
Learning about the Neighbors:
When a router boots up, it
identifies its neighbors by sending
HELLO packets over point-to-point
connections, receiving replies with
unique neighbor names. For
broadcast links (e.g., Ethernet), the
setup is more complex.
Setting Link Costs: In the link state
routing algorithm, each link must
have a distance or cost metric for
calculating the shortest paths.
Building Link State Packets: In the
link state routing algorithm, each
router creates a packet containing
sender identity, sequence number,
age, and neighbor list with
associated costs.
Distributing the Link State
Packets: Distributing link state
packets is a crucial aspect of the
algorithm. To ensure all routers
quickly and reliably receive these
packets, a flooding approach is
used. Each packet contains a
sequence number that is
incremented with each new
transmission, preventing
duplicates. However, to address
potential issues, packet age is
also included and decremented
periodically.
Computing the New Routes: In link
state routing, once a router has
collected all link state packets
representing the entire network
graph, it can construct a
comprehensive view of the
network, considering links in both
directions with potential different
costs. Dijkstra's algorithm is then
employed locally to compute the
shortest paths to all destinations,
informing the router of the
preferred link for each destination,
which is added to the routing
tables.

Pure ALOHA does not require

global time synchronization,
whereas in slotted ALOHAthe time
is divided into discrete slots into
which all frames must fit.Let users
transmit whenever they have data
to be sent. There will be collisions
and all collided frames will be
damaged. Senders will know
through feedback property
whether the frame is destroyed or
not by listening channel.If the
frame was destroyed, the sender
waits a random amount of time
and again sends the frame.The
waiting time must be random
otherwise the same frame will
collide over and over. Frames are
transmitted at completely arbitrary
times. Whenever two frames try to
occupy the channel at the same
time, there will be a collisionand
both will be destroyed. We have to
find out what is the efficiency of
an ALOHA channel? Let us
consider an infinite collection of
interactive users sitting at their
systems (stations). A user will
always be in two states typing or
waiting. Let the ‘Frame time’
denote the time required to
transmit one fixed length frame.
Assume that infinite populations
of users are generating new
frames according to poisson
distribution with mean N frames
per frame time. If N>1 users are
generating frames at a higher rate
than the channel can handle. For
reasonable throughput 0<N<1. In
addition to new frames, the
station also generates
retransmission of frames. Old and
new frames are G per frame
time.-G> N At low load there will
be few collisions, so G ~ N. Under
all loads, the throughput S = GPo,
where Po is the probability that a
frame does not suffer a collision. A
frame will not suffer a collision if
no other frames are sent with one
frame time of its start. Let ‘t’ be
the time required to send a frame.
If any other user has generated a
frame between time to and to+t,
the end of that frame will collide
with the beginning of the shaded
frame.-Similarly, any other frame
started b/w to+t and to+2t will
bump into the end of the shaded
frame. The probability that ‘k’
frames are generated during a
given frame time is given by the
Poisson distribution: Pr[k] =
Gke-Gk!. The probability of zero
frames is just e-G . In an interval
two frame times long, the mean
number at frames generated is
2G. The probability at no other
traffic being initiated during the
entire vulnerable period is given
by
Po = e-2G S= Ge-2G [S=GPo]. The
Maximum throughput occurs at
G=0.5 with S=1/2e = 0.184.The
channel utilization at pure ALOHA
=18%.
In 1972, Roberts devised a method
for doubling the capacity of the
ALOHA system. In this system the
time is divided into discrete
intervals, each interval
corresponding to one frame.One
way to achieve synchronization
would be to have one special
station emit a pip at the start of
each interval, like
a clock. In Roberts’ method, which
has come to be known as slotted
ALOHA, in contrast to Abramson’s
pure ALOHA; a computer is not
permitted to send whenever a
carriage return is typed. Instead, it
is required to wait for the
beginning of the next slot. Thus
the continuous pure ALOHA is
turned into a discrete one. Since
the vulnerable period is now
halved, the amount of no other
traffic during the same slot as our
test frame is e-G which leads to S
= Ge –G At G=1, slotted ALOHA
will have maximum throughput. So
S=1/e or about 0.368, twice that of
pure ALOHA. The channel
utilization is 37% in slotted
ALOHA.