CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Chemistry is the science which deals with the composition of matter, the changes it undergoes, conditions that influence such changes, and its properties and uses. | | | The scope of chemistry is so broad. It encompasses the whole universe and | everything animate and inanimate in it. It is concerned not only with the composition of | matter and the changes it undergoes but also with the energy associated with these | changes. Through chemistry, people try to understand and explain the behavior of all | matter. | | Importance of Chemistry Chemistry is fun. You have to experience some of the excitement of chemistry and some of the joy of learning about it. Chemistry should not be excluded from your learning experiences. Learning chemistry will enrich your life - now and long after this course is over - through a better understanding of the natural world, the technological questions now confronting us, and the choices we must face as citizen within a scientific and technological society. ‘We live in a chemical world — a world of drugs, biocides, food additives, fertilizers, fuels, detergents, cosmetics, and plastics .We live in a world with toxic wastes, polluted air and water, and dwindling petroleum reserves. Knowledge of chemistry will make you better understand the benefits and hazards of this world and will enable you to make intelligent decisions in the future. We are all chemically dependent. Even in the womb we depend on a constant supply of oxygen, water, glucose, and a multitude of other chemicals. Our bodies are intricate chemical factories. They ere durable but delicate systems. Innumerable chemical reactions that allow our bodies to function properly are constantly taking place within us. Thinking, leaming, exercising, feeling happy or sad, putting on too much ‘weight or not gaining enough, and virtually all life processes are made possible by these chemical reactions. Everything that we ingest is part of a complex process that determines whether our bodies work effectively or not. The consumption of some substances can initiate chemical reactions that will stop body functions altogether. Other substances if consumed can cause permanent handicaps, and still others can make living less comfortable. A proper balance of the right foods provides the chemicals and generates the reactions we need in order to function at our best. The knowledge of chemistry that you will soon be gaining will help you better understand how your body works so that you will be able to take proper care of it. Scanned with CamScannerLife is an array of large, carbon-based molecules maintained by biochemical ic To understand and appreciate the nature of a living being, we must and the principles of science and chemistry as they apply to biological " Molecules. ‘The study of chemistry need not be dull and difficult. Rather, it can enrich your life in so many ways — through a better understanding of your body, your mind, your environment, and the world in which you live. After all, the search to understand the universe is an essential part of what it means to be human. An understanding of basic chemical principles is essential for anyone considering @ medically related career; a worker in any science-related field will benefit from an understanding of the principles and applications of chemistry. Branches of Chemistry Chemistry is a broad area of study covering everything from the basic parts of an atom to interactions between huge biological molecules. Because of this, chemistry encompasses the following specialties. 1. General chemistry is a survey of the entire field of chemistry with particular emphasis ‘on the fundamental concepts and the elementary laws. 2. Inorganic chemistry deals with the study of the preparation and properties of the elements and their compounds excluding orgenic compounds. Inorganic chemists have been responsible for the development of unique substances such as ‘semiconductors and high-temperature ceramics for industrial use. 3. Organic chemistry deals with the study of matter that is composed principally of carbon and hydrogen. Organic chemists study methods of preparing such diverse substances as plastics, drugs, solvents, and a host of industrial cheinicals, 4. Analytical chemistry deals with analysis of chemical substances. Analysis includes identifying substances (called qualitative analysis) and determining the concentration or amount of substances (called quentitative analysis). Analytical chemists detect traces of toxic chemicals in water and air. They also develop methods to analyze human body fluid for drugs, poisons, and levels of medication. 5. Physical chemistry deals with laws underlying chemical changes. It is a discipline that attempts to explain the way in which matter behaves. Physical chemists Gevelop theoretical concepts and try to prove them experimentally. This helps us understand how chemical systems behave. Scanned with CamScanner6. Biochemistry is the study of the compounds, chemical reactions, and molecular interactions that are involved in the production, maintenance, and reproduction of living organisms. 7. Radiochemistry (nuclear chemistry) deals with the changes that occur in the atomic nuclei when bombarded with the suitable projectiles. The Scientific Method Chemistry is the study of matter. To answer specific questions about the nature Of matter, Chemists observe the behavior of matter. Such observations are most offen made under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. This allows other scientists to repeat the experiment to determine if the results are reproducible that is, to see if same results occur each time the experiment is run. Scientists follow an orderly and systematic approach called the scientific method to gather knowledge. With this approach, new ideas about the world are constantly checked against reality. This method is a way of answering questions about the world we live in. | ‘The scientific method consists of a series of steps that can be summarized as | follows +. Observation — As a result of observation, a question is raised. Observations are not confined to merely using the senses but also include information gained from measuring instruments. 2. Hypothesis — An educated guess is made to explain initial observations. 3. Experimentation — Several tests are done to determine the validity of the hypothesis. Experiments must be well-designed and carefully controlled. The conditions must also be recorded. 4. Revision of Hypothesis — If the results of the experimentation disprove the original hypothesis, a new hypothesis must be formed and another set of tests must be made. o . Repetition — If the experimental data support the hypothesis, it must be shown that under the same conditions, the results are the same. 6. Theory ~ This is a tested hypothesis, proven to be correct by repeated experimentation. Scanned with CamScannerin of Scientific Method Doctors use the scientific method in their diagnosis and treatment of an illness. They Collect the data about the disease, using blood test, measurements of temperature and blood Pressure, and data from diagnostic equipment such as electrocardiographs or magnetic resonance imagers. They then make diagnosis (their hypothesis) and go on to test their hypothesis by prescribing a treatment. If the patient does not respond to the treatment, doctors must discard their hypothesis and collect more data by further testing or perhaps exploratory surgery. They then propose a new or revised diagnosis and treatment. Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE ia order to understand the arrangement of the periodic table, and to be able to use it, we must consider the arrangement of the electrons in atoms. Even though the periodic: table was set up before anything was known about the structure of the atom, we shaii find it useful to consider the correlation between the electronic arrangement of atoms and the organization of the periodic table. The Atom An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical identity of that element. Atoms are particles of elements that enter irifo chemical reactions. They are the building blocks from which molecules are made. A molecule is the smallest-unit of a pure substance that can exist independently and exhibit all the properties of the Substance. ifoms in molecules are held together by chemical bonds. An atom is a very small particle. Billions of atoms are packed together to build you an¢ all the matter around you. Even the dot over the letter i contains huge numbers of atoms. Any visible quantity of an element contains a vast number of identical atoms. But when we refer to an atom of an element, we isolate a single atom from the multitude to represent the element in its simplest form. Composition of the Atom The basic structural unit of an element is the atom, which is the smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element. The atom is composed of three primary particles: the electron, the proton, and the neutron. We can consider the atom to be composed of two distinct regions: perm Zatian 4. The nucleus is a small, dense, positively charged region in the center of the atom. The nucleus is composed of positively charged pookena and uncharged neutrons. - ~ On A proton repels other protons and attracts electrons. mie ra ’ eect mS elect 2. Surounding the nucleus is diffuse region of negative charge populated by electrons, the source of the negative charge. Electrons are very low in mass in contrast to the protons and neutrons. 7 I Oy mags~ ClecAae> Scanned with CamScannerSub-Atomic Particles Subatomic Symbol —_Electrical Relative Actual Mass (9) Particle Charge Mass (amu) proton porp’ 1+ famu jw 1.672 x 10% electron eore 1- 0.00085 "73s 9.107 x 10 neutron norn® none 1 amu 4,675 x 10% 4 amu = 1.661 x 10% g An amu is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, a standard with which the mass of every other atom is compared. Atomic Number and Mass Number All the atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons, this feature distinguishes atoms of the element from atoms of all the other elements. An atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus, is used to identity each element. In the periodic table, the atornic number is the whole number that appears above the symbol for each element. An atom is electrically neutral. That means that the number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons. This electrical balance gives an atom an overall charge of zero. Thus, in every atom, the atomic number also gives the number of electrons. The protons and neutrons in an atom provide essentially its mass. The mass number of an atom is equal to the sum of the number of protons and the number neutrens in the nucleus of the atom. Atoms of various types differ in their number of protons, neutrons and electrons. The number of protons determines the identity of the atom. As such, the number of protons is characteristic of the element. When the number of protons is equal to the fumber of electrons, the atom is‘ neutral because the charges are balanced and effectively cancel one another. We may represent an element ‘symbolically as follows: A hamy = heb law 2 ay = FEE Zz 1 VG 32wI0) CULES Q tetyie! ot 1.698 wt0 Scanned with CamScanner= The atomic number (Z) is equal to.the number of protons in the atom, and the mass number (A) is equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons For an atom, in which positive and negative charges cancel, the number of protons and electrons must be equal and identical to the atornic number. mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons atomic number (Z) = number of electrons = number of protons number of neutrons = mass number (A) - atomic number (Z) (Pan) ny-(A) - palms F cotiy in (2) = prubors + Cleebnny AL sees evenly - Az Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different masses because they contain’ different numbers of neutrons. In other words, isotopes have different mass numbers. The following are isotopes of hydrogen lsotopes 4 2 3 H H H 1 1 1 hydrogen deuterium tritium (Hydrogen-1) (Hydrogen-2) (Hydrogen-3) Isotopes are often written with the name of the element followed by the mass number. For example, the isotopes of carbon may be written as carbon-12 (or C-12) and carbon- 14 (or C-14). anor 9) Two or more isotopes are known for all elements. However, Fat si isotopes are stable. Some are radioactive and are continuously decomposing to form other elements. jioactir le isotopes have many uses in science and technology. Scientists use carbon -14 isotope to determine the ages of artifacts (radioactive dating) and potassiurn- 40 or uranium -238 to estimate the age of rocks on earth or extraterrestrial objects. In medicine, isotopes are used for cancer treatment (such as cobait-60 and cesium-137) and as tracers for diagnostic purposes: Tracers are isotopes, especially radioactive isotopes that are used to trace the path of the atoms of an element in a chemical or biological process. Sodium-24 when injected into the bloodstream as a salt solution can be monitored to trace the flow of blood and detect possible constrictions or obstructions in the circulatory system. lodine-131 has been used to test the activity of the thyroid gland. In a nuclear reactor, the fission reaction of uranium-235 may be harnessed to produce energy for generating electricity. The isotopes used in atomic bombs are uranium-235 and plutonium-239. In agriculture, Cobalt-60 is used by research scientists to develop disease resistant and high quality grains and other crops. i Scanned with CamScannerElectron Arrangement in Atoms fhe chemical behavior of an element is primarily determined by the way the electrons are arranged around the nucleus. In the early 1900's, Neil Bohr developed one of the first models of the atom called the planetary model. He based his theory on the experimental data of Emest Rutherford. Over the years, this theory has been modified, but it is helpful for us to understand Bohr’s simple model. He pictured the atom as consisting of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons traveling in orbits, similar io planets traveling around the sun; In his model, every electron has a specific amount of energy. Electrons of similar energy are grouped in an energy level called a shell. ‘The shell closest to the nucleus contains electrons with the lowest energies, whereas shells farther away from the nucleus contain electrons with higher energies. Shells ere designated by numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) or letters (K, L, M, N, etc.). Each shell cza hold a definite number of electrons. The maximum number of electrons per shell can be calculated from the formula 2n’, where n is the number of the energy level. Shell 1. lowest energy level, can hold up to 2 electrons; shell 2 can hold up to & electrons; shell 3 can take 18 electrons; and shell 4 has room for 32 electrons. The electrons in the shells or main energy levels can be described in more detail. Within esch shell, the electrons with identical energy are grouped as subshells. The different types of subshells are identified by letters s, p, d, and f The s subshell is lowest it: energy, followed by p, then the d subshell, and finally the highest energy ‘subsheil, the f subshell. The number of subshells in each shell is equal to the numerical value of the shell and each type of subshell holds a specific number of electrons. Number of Electrons Within the Shells and Subshells Shell Subshell Number of Electrons Shell Capacity 1 1s 2 2 2 2s 2 8 2p 6 3 3s 2 18 3p 6 3d 10 4 4s 2 32 4p 6 Ad 10 af 14 Scanned with CamScannerAithough Bohr described an atom with electrons orbiting around the nucleus, scientists found it impossible to pinpoint accurately the position and speed of an electron. The position of the electron could be described as following a definite path. Instead, scientists could only specify regions in which there is a large probability of finding one or two electrons. These probability regions are known as orbitals. Each energy level has sublevels consisting of one, or more orbitals. An orbital is a specific region of a sublevel containing a maximum of two electrons. Number of Orbitals per Sublevel Sublevel Number of Orbitals Electron Configuration The arrangement of electrons in atomic orbitals is referred to as the atom’s electron configuration. The electron configuration of an atom shows the distribution of the electrons in the subshells and the orbitals in the main or principle energy levels. The following convention is used to summarize the number and location of electrons in the atom. 5 2p ‘where 2 is the main energy level pis the subshell 5 is the number of electrons in a given subshell Note the Zp® is read as “two p five’. Scanned with CamScanner10 To diagram atomic orbitals, squares or rectangles are used. For orbitals such as p, d, and f orbitals, a big rectangle is subdivided into the number of corresponding equivalent orbitals. The three p orbitals may be drawn as Electrons are represented by arrows. Because the maximum number of electrons in an orbital is two and these two electrons must be spinning in opposite directions, one arrow must be drawn downward and the other upward. Consider the following guidelines for writing electron configuration: 1. Obtain the total number of electrons in the atoms from the atomic number on the periodic table. 2. Electrons in atoms occupy the lowest energy orbitals that are available beginning with 1s. This is known as the Aufbau principle (Aufbau means “building up” in German). The Aufbau order of increasing energies is as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p .. Beiow is a device for filling up sublevels in the order of increasing energies. To remember the order in which the electrons fill orbitals, follow the diagonal arrows beginning at the bottom. " 3. Each principal energy level, n. can contain only n subshells. 4. Each sublevel is composed of one (s) or more (three p, five d, seven f) orbitals. 5. No more than two electrons can be placed in any orbital. To hold two electrons, the electrons must be spinning in opposite directions. This is the Pauli Exclusion Principle. 6. The maximum number of electrons in any principal energy level is 2n*. Scanned with CamScannerBF 7. Within a given sublevel, each orbital is occupied by a single electron before any pairing can occur, Electrons do not pair in an orbital if another orbital is available at the same energy level. Electrons pair up only when all orbitals of the same energy level contain at least one electron. This is known as the Hund’s Rule of Maximum Muttiplicity. Electrons must be distributed among the orbitals of a sublevel such that the maximum number of unpaired electrons have parallel spins (meaning, all unpaired electrons spin in the same direction). 8. Electrons are found in orbitals in order of increasing energy. The orbitals in the higher energy levels overlap. For example, the 4s orbital has less energy than the 3d orbitals. Electron Configuration for Atoms of the First 10 Elements Name Atomic Number Electron Configuration Hydrogen 1 1s! Helium 2 1s? Lithium 3 1s%28! Beryllium 4 18725? Boron 5 1s°2s"2p' Carbon 6 1872s"2p? Nitrogen 7 1872872p° ‘Oxygen 8 18°2872p* Fluorine 9 18?28"2p5 Neon 10 1s°28*2p® Illustrate the electron configuration of a sodium atom (atomic number = 11) and diagram the electron arrangement in the orbitals. Electron configuration is? 2s* 2p* 3s‘ Electron arrangement in the orbitals n] fe] [eyed] Scanned with CamScanner12 Stability of the Atom Valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom that contains electrons. The elections found in this shell are called valence electrons. These electrons determine the cremical behavior of the atom. Similarities in the chemical properties of elements result from identical numbers of electrons in the valence shells of the atoms. Each atom of metal tends to give up the electrons in its outer shell, and each atom of nonmetal takes on enough electrons to complete its valence shell. The ions so formed have noble gas configurations. An octet of valence electrons is the characteristic arrangement of all noble gases except helium. When atoms react with each other, they often appear to be trying to attain a stable electron configuration. Thus they are said to be following the octet rule, or the “rule of eight”. Atoms either transfer or share electrons in forming compounds. Either process provicies stable electron configuration to the atoms. The number of electrons that must be lost, gained, or shared by an atom to achieve a stable configuration is known as the valence of the atom. The valence, therefore, is a measure of the combining capacity of an atom. In following the octet rule, atoms of Group IA metals give up one electron to form 1+ ioris, those of Group IIA metals give up two electrons to form 2+ ions, and Group IIIA metais give up three electrons to form 3+ ions. Group VIIA nonmetal atoms take on one electron to form 1- ions, and Group VIA atoms tend to pick up two electrons to form 2- ions. Atoms of B group metals can give up various numbers of electrons to form positive ions with various charges. lons are electrically charged particles that result from a gain of one or more electrons by the parent atom (forming negative ions, or anions) or a loss of one or more electrons from the parent atom (forming positive ions, or cations). Atoms with less than four valence electrons tend to give up electrons. The number of electrons given up by an atom is its positive valence. Atoms with more than four valence electrons tend to accept electrons to satisfy the octet rule. The number of electrons taken up or gained by an atom is its negative valence. Formation of an anion may occur as follows: 19 19 Fo+ te ——> F 9 “9 Scanned with CamScanner13 The neutral atom having 9 protons and 9 electrons gains an electron and the fluorine anion {having 9 protons and 10 electrons) is formed. Formation of a cation of sodium may proceed as follows: 23 23 Na —— > j@ + Nat 11 1 The neutral atom (having 11 protons and 11 electrons) loses an electron and the sodium cation (having 11 protons and 10 electrons) is formed. Atomic Electron Valence Symbo! for Symbol Number Configuration Electrons Valence jon Na 1 1$72s72p®3s' 1 1 Na" Mg 12 18:282pas* 2 42 Mg"? F 9 18°282p* 7 A F s 16 Teac Dpt estan! 6 2 s? Al 43 1'28°2p038"3p" 3 43 Ar Ne 10 18°28?2p° 8 0 no ion Names, Symbols and Valences of Common fons Cations (+ ions) Anions (- fons) + 1 Ammonium NH,” hydroxide OH silver Ag’ cyanide cn aurous Au’ nitrite Noy cuprous Cut nitrate NO" hydrogen H acetate CH3COO’, Ac’, OAc” potassium Kr permanganate MnOs lithium ie _ Perchlorate Clos sodium Na* chlorate clos mercurous Hg* chlorite cioz hypochlorite cio" bisulfite HSOs +2 bisulfate HSO, bica en a Scanned with CamScannerstannic arsenic 35 sn’ As*® chloride iodide thiocyanate icdate 2 dichromate thiosulfate sulfide sulfite carbonate molybdate manganste oxalate Po; Po;? As0,3 Scanned with CamScanner 14y : The Periodic Table As the number of known elements grew, chemists developed the periodic table to organize and classify them. The development of the periodic table is one of the milestones in the history of chemistry because it brought order to what had seemed to be a collection of thousand of unrelated facts. And it did something equally impressive: It helped chemists to predict the existence of elements that had yet to be discovered. In the 1800's, chemists were trying to find some logical order among the known chemical elements, in much the same way that biologists classified animal and plants according to their similarities. Johann Dobereiner and John Newlands attempted to group the elements with similer properties in triads (groups of three) and octaves (groups of eight) respectively. But the arrangement they made did not work well with other elements. In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and the German chemist Lothar Meyer independently developed a much more successful proposal, which is the basis of the present day periodic table. However, Mendeleev is usually given more credit than Meyer because Mendeleev published his scheme first and was more successful at demorstrating its value. Mendeleev noticed that when he arranged the elements by increasing atomic mass he could see a periodic repetition of their properties. Mendeleev eventually produced the first periodic table. The Periodic Law ‘One error in the early periodic table was the fact that the elements were arranged - in order of increasing atomic weights. When scientists obtained more accurate values for those atomic weights and filled all the gaps in Mendeleev’s table, — elements were misplaced in the table. When H.G. Moseley (1887-1915) determined the change in the nucleus, he concluded that the elements should be arranged by increasing atomic number. This corrected the earlier discrepancies of the periodic table. This classification of the elements by atomic number is the basis of the periodic law, which states that several physical and chemical properties of atoms vary Periodically with their atomic numbers. Scanned with CamScanner16 Periods and Groups Each row of the periodic table is called a period. The periods are numbered from one tc seven, corresponding to the seven energy levels/shells of an atom that can contain electrons. This means that any element in, say period 4 has its outermost electrons assigned to the fourth energy level. Each column of the periodic table is called a group or family. Mendeleev noticed that the various members of a group show similar chemical behavior. Chemical reactions between atoms involve interactio’ | between electrons in outermost energy level. The number of valence electrons d° 4 mines the chemical characteristics of the element. Each member of a chemic’ family has the same number of valence electrons. There are several different $, tems in 1 .e today for numbering the groups or columis on the periodic table. One system pre ,osed by the International Union of Pure and Agplied Chemistry (IUPAC) is to numb ir each column frorn left to right using numbers 1 to 18. The. traditional system use 1 Roman number | through Vill and the letters A and B. The A groups are the rep esentative elements or the main-group elemerits. The group numbers | through Vill .* the top of these columns indicate the numbe: of valence electrons for each member ot ‘he group. The B group elements consist of the three .ows of 10 elements in the middle of the periodic table and are called the transition elements. They often show similar chemical properties not only within groups, but also along periods. This similarity in chemical behavior results from the fact the: across the transition elements, electrons are being added to the next-to-outermost leve: rather than the outermost energy level. ‘the two rows of 14 elements ¢. the bottom of the table are called the inner transition elements (also called the /a'.thanide and actinide series). Electrons in these elements are filling the f orbitals, the 4 ‘in the lanthanide ssries and the 5fin the actinide series. As a result, these elements h sve very similar properties. Classification of Groups ' {n addition to group numers, some groups are given family names. Group IA elements are called the alkali metals. The elements within this group exhibit similar properiies. They are soft, shiny metals that are good conductors of heat and electricity and have relatively low melting points. They react vigorously with water and form white products when they combine with oxygen. Group IIA elements are called alkaline earth metals. They are also shiny metals like those in Group IA, but they are not quite so reactive. Scanned with CamScanner17 Tne elements in Group VIIA are called the halogens. They include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. On the periodic table, each is listed as a single symbol. However, halogens exist as combinations of two atoms joined to form diatomic molecuies. Group VIIIA contains the noble gases. They are quite unreactive and are seldom found in combination with other elements. Each noble gas, except helium, has an electror: configuration of eight electrons in the outermost energy level. The chemical stability of these elements comes from this stable arrangement of electrons. Although helium contains only two electrons, these two valence electrons completely fill the first energy ‘evel of the atom, giving helium its stability. Cther families are sometimes identified by the name of the first element in the group or family. Thus the IIIA elements are sometimes referred to as the boron family, the IVA, elements as the carbon family, the VA as the nitrogen family, and the VIA elements as the oxygen family. Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids Another feature of the periodic table is the heavy zigzag line that separates the elements into metals and the nonmefals, The metals are those elements on the left of the line except for hydrogen and the nonmetals are the elements on the right. There is no shar» distinction, however, between the elements having metallic properties and those having nonmetallic properties; the elements next to the zigzag line may exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals. Such elements are known as metalloids, or semimerals. In general, most metals are shiny solids. They can be shaped into wires (ductile) or hammered into a flat shape (malleable). Metals are often good conductors of heat and electricity. They usually melt at higher temperatures than nonmetals. All of the metals are solid at room temperature, except for mercury (Hg), which is liquid. Nonmetals are not shiny, malleable or ductile, and they are often poor conductors of heat and electricity. They typically have low melting points and low densities. The most important physical property of metalloids is their ability to conduct electricity. Because they do not do this well as metals, they are known as semiconductors. This behavior, especially in silicon and germanium, has led to the development of integrated circuits on silicon chips, making possible such electronic devices as personal computers. Scanned with CamScanner18, Trends in Properties To understand better the relationship between atomic structure and chemical behavior of the elements, we have to be familiar with the trends in properties within a period and within @ group in the periodic table. Metallic Property The metallic property of an element refers to the “looseness” of the outermost electrons. The atoms of the elements at the left side of the periodic table and the heavier elements lying at the bottom of the groups generally lose electrons more readily. Atoms of elements that tend to gain electrons rather than lose them exhibit nonmetallic behavior. Metallic property decreases from left to right within a period (excluding the inert or nobie gases which are chemically unreactive). Note that the metals are found at the left side of the periodic table and the nonmetals, at the right. With increasing atomic number (nuclear charge), the valence electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus, hence they are more tightly held and are not easily given up. Down a group, the metallic property increases. The nuclear attraction decreases from top to bottom in a group due to the shielding effect of inner electrons. Hence, the electrons are more loosely held and are easily given up. 7 Atomic Size (Atomic Radius) Atomic radius is determined by taking half the distance between nuclei of adjecent atoms in a compound, There is a tendency for the atomic radius to decrease from left to right in a period. Elements within a period have the same number of main energy levels. But from left to right across a period, the atomic number (positive charge of the nucleus) increases. With greater nuclear attraction, the valence electrons are pulled closer toward the nucleus, resulting in a smaller atomic radius. The atomic radius tends to incroase from top to bottom in a group. Elements in a group nave the same number of valence electrons, but the number of main energy levels increases in going down the group (period number increases). Although the nuclear charge is increasing down the group because of increasing atomic number, the shielding effect of the inner electrons, whose number increases as the number of energy levels increases, must be considered. Due to this shielding effect of inner electrons, the effective nuclear charge of the atom decreases. With weaker nuclear attraction, the valence electrons are drawn farther from the nucleus, resulting in a bigger atomic radius. é Scanned with CamScannerlonization Energy tonization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the outermost electron from an atom. In other words, the ionization energy shows how strongly the nucleus attracts its valence electrons. The stronger the attraction for these valence electrons, the greater is the ionization energy. In smaller atoms the nucleus and the valence electrons are close together, and the electric attraction is strong. In larger atoms, the valence shell is farther from the nucleus and, therefore, the attraction for the valence: electrons is weaker. in general, the trend is for the ionization energy to increase across a period as the radius decreases. On the other hand, as we move down the group or family, the atomic sadii increases, the ionization energy decreases. Metals generally have lower ionization energies than the nonmetals, so that it is easier io remove a valence electron from a metal than from a nonmetal. The noble gases, with their stable configuration of electrons, all have very high ionization energies. This electron configuration somehow makes it extremely difficult to remove an electron from the outermost energy level of an atom. Electron Affinity ‘The electron affinity of an element is the amount of energy released when an atom gains electrons. Going across a period, the electron affinity increases. As with atomic size and ionization energy, this is due to the fact that the valence electrons are closer to the nucleus, more energy is released when an electron is added to the valence shell. Going down a group of nonmetals electron affinity decreases. This is due to the fact thet going down the group the valence electrons are farther from the nucleus and, therefore, not as much energy is released when an electron is accepted into the valence shell. Electronegativity Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom of an element that is chemically combined with another element to attract electrons to itself. The higher the electronegati the more strongly an atom of the element attracts electrons. Eleciroriegativity values have no unit. Note that the inert or noble gases, being chemically unreactive, have no electronegativity values. in general, the electronegativity of representative elements increases from left to fight across a period because of increasing nuclear charge. Thus the nonmetals, which lie toward the right of the table, tend to have higher electronegativities than metals. Scanned with CamScanner20 The electronegativity of representative elements generally decreases from top to bottom in @ group. This is due to decreasing effective nuclear charge resulting from increasing shielding effect of inner electrons as the period number increases down the group. ‘This concept of electronegativity is very useful in writing names and formulas for compounds and predicting the type of bonding in compounds and polarity of bonds and molecules. Summary of the Periodic Properties of Elements Periodic Property Across a Period Going down a Group metallic property decreases increases atomic size decreases increases ionization energy increases decreases electron affinity increases decreases slectronegativity increases decreases Scanned with CamScannerDate: EXERCISE 1 4. Caiculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom. 137 39 35 a Ba b K e @ 56 19 7 3 Fill in the table with the missing deta “Atom ‘Atomic Wass | Number | Number | Number Number | Number of of of protons | Neutrons | electrons Ar 40 18 Ni 28 31 Cc 6 12 cl 17 18 Scanned with CamScannerEXERCISE 2 4. Write the. electron configuration of the following elements and determine the valence shell, number of valence electrons, and the valence. 8, potassium b. calcium ¢, argon d. oxygen @. chlorine 2. iilustrate the electron configuration in the sublevels and draw the electrons in the orbitals of the following atoms: a. Ca b. 8r 20 35 the period number and group number for the element whose atoms have the tatiowing electron configuration: a. 18°2e%2p b. 1s%28%2p%as" c. 19°2572p3 d. is?29? 419726?2p%397ap? s Scanned with CamScannerEXERCISE 3 4. Name each of the following ions: Tra rp ao sw 2 2 2. Write the formula for each of the following ions: the sulfate ion the bicarbonate ion the nitrate ion the ammonium ion the permanganate ion the calcium ion the bromide ion the ferrous ion the oxglate ion the mereuric ion vr sap e978 3, Write a symbol for each of the following ions: . @ sulfur aiom that has gained two electrons @ sodium atom that has lost one electron . an aluminum atom that has lost three slecirons j. a bromine atom that has gained one electron . a selenium atom that hes gained two electrons eoegp Scanned with CamScanner4 Name: Date: EXERCISES 1, Using the periodic table, A. identify the following elements: @. group IIA, period 5 b. group IVB, period 4 ¢. group VIIA, period 2 d. group IIA, period 2 Which of these four elements have similar chemical properties? B. Find the following information: a. the symbol of the noble gas in period 3 b. the lightest element in group IVA c. the only metalloid in group IA d. the element whose atoms contain 18 protons C. Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic size: Ca, Mg, Be, Sr, Ba D. Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing ionization energy: 3, Cl, F E. Classify the following elements as metals, nonmetals or metalloids: S, Si, Cl, Ca F. For each of the following pairs, predict which element has the higher alectronegativity: a. Na and Cl b. Clandt ¢. Pand Cl d.CandO e. Fe and Br Scanned with CamScanner