Experiment 1: Introduction to electronics instrumentations.

1.1 Objective To introduce the basics electronics instrumentations such as Oscilloscope, function generator, electronics trainer, DC power supply, digital multimeter and analogue multimeter.

1.2 Apparatus Oscilloscope Function generator Electronic trainer DC power supply Digital multimeter Analogue multimeter

1.3 Analysis Oscilloscope

Oscilloscope is use To testing the circuits because oscilloscope allows us to see the signals at different points in the circuit.

Investigating an electronic system by monitor the signals at the input and output of each system block, checking that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next.

Only shows the voltage value Can be used to observe the wave, display the wave either in DC or AC.

Function for the each button on oscilloscope. The screen draws a V/t graph, a graph of voltage against time where the voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal or X-axis. The oscilloscope can be used to measure the different properties of signals.

The TIME/DIV control determines the horizontal scale of the graph which appears on the oscilloscope screen. The VOLTS/DIV controls determine the vertical scale of the graph drawn on the oscilloscope screen. The trigger of the oscilloscope use to stabilize the wave forms and the capture single-shot wave forms. The trigger makes repeated wave forms appear static by repeatedly displaying the same portion of the signal. There are four types of triggers. They are edge, logic, pulse and video.

The trigger level and slope controls provide the basics trigger point definition. Then the slope control determines the trigger point is on the rising which is positive or falling which is negative edge of the signal. The level determines where the edge of the trigger point occurs.

Intensity or the z axis is the button that uses to control the brighter of the signal appear or the greater value of z. These are the parts of the signal that occur more often. At maximum intensity, all waveform points are displayed at full brightness. So when the intensity is decreased, the brightness of parts of the signal displayed also decrease. This is called intensity grading. The brightest parts are the points most frequently acquired and the dimmer parts are less frequently acquired. Measuring frequency and period of the oscilloscope by select the V Bars from the menu. Then the upper right of the screen will appear the two sets of measurements. The measurements on the right are the values of where the selected cursor intersects the waveform. The measurement on the left give the difference between the cursors and the time position of the selected cursor. How to use oscilloscope correctly? First turn on the function generator. Use a BNC to BNC cable to connect output 1 of the function generator to channel 1 of the oscilloscope. Turn on the Output of Channel 1 of the function generator. On the screen of the oscilloscope will appear yellow fuzz. Then press the AUTOSET button on the oscilloscope. After waiting for a second the sine wave will appear. Function generator

A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software that used to generate electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot, in which case some kind of triggering source is required, either internal or external. Function Generators are used in development, testing and repair of electronic equipment like as a signal source to test amplifiers, or to introduce an error signal into a control loop. A typical function generator can

provide frequencies up to 20 MHz. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given electronic circuit. Usually, the function generator is using with the oscilloscope. According to the guide for both instruments, switch on the function generator and adjust the output level to produce a visible signal on the oscilloscope screen. Then adjust TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV at the oscilloscope to obtain a clear display and investigate the effects of pressing the waveform shape buttons. The rotating frequency control and the range switch are used together to determine the frequency of the output signal. With the settings shown in the diagram above, the output frequency will be 1 kHz. For example how would we change these setting to obtain an output frequency of 50 Hz? This is done by moving the RANGE switch to '100' and the FREQUENCY control to '.5' Experiment with these controls to produce other frequencies of output signal, such as 10 Hz, or 15 kHz. Whatever frequency and amplitude of signal that we select, we should be able to change the oscilloscope settings to give a clear V/t graph of the signal on the oscilloscope screen. Electronic trainer

Have the ability to simulate real shooting scaled down targets and scoring rings in direct proportion to an actual match it would be a mistake to compare scores shot on an ET to scores shot live, both competition and practice.

Being a diagnostic tool Qualified technicians able to install, operate, and maintain industrial and power electronics equipment.

DC power supply

The DC power supply is used To generate either a constant voltage or a constant current which is, it may be used as either a DC voltage source or a DC current source. Usually, we use the primarily as a voltage source. Recall that DC is an acronym for direct current. DC means constant with respect to time. The HP3611 DC power supply has two range settings. The first range setting allows the power supply to produce between 0 and 20 volts (V) and has a maximum current capacity of 1.5 amps (A). The second range setting allows it to generate between 0 and 35 V with a maximum current capacity of 0.85 A. The voltage produced by the power supply is controlled by the knob labeled voltage. The current is limited by adjusting the knob labeled current. As long as the circuit does not attempt to draw more current than the value set by the current knob, the voltage will remain constant. Current limiting allows the power supply to be set such that it will not generate more current than desired. This can be useful as a safety feature, preventing electrocution due to accidental contact with terminals. The current limiting can prevent damage to equipment and parts which may be unable to handle excessive currents.

Digital multimeter

The function of digital multimeter is Gives the accurate readings for AC/DC voltage A digital multimeter displays the quantity measured as a number, which eliminates parallax errors.

Analogue multimeter

Analog multimeter is the Electrical test instruments which are used to measure voltage, current, resistance, frequency and signal power. Advanced analog multimeter comes with more features such as capacitor, diode and IC testing modes. Use a needle along a scale. Switched range analog multimeter is very cheap but is difficult for beginners to read accurately, especially on resistance scales.

Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter is usually better because its resistance is much higher, 1 M or 10 M, compared to 200 for an analog multimeter on a similar range. Easier to follow a slowly changing voltage by watching the needle on an analogue display. Analog multimeters have a very low resistance and is very sensitive when use as ammeter. Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer. multimeters can be used to find electronic and electrical short circuit problems. Specific measurements made by analog multimeters include DC voltage, AC voltage, DC current, AC current, frequency range for AC currents, and decibel measurement. Analog multimeters that measure current may have a current clamp built-in or configured as a probe. A current clamp is a sensor that clamps around the wire.

1.4 Result and conclusion Question: Display a 2 Vp, 1 kHz of sine wave on the oscilloscope.

From the question: V = 2V f = 1 kHz

so,

1 kHz =

T=

where T is the time/division (x-axis) x volt for the one period(y axis), xy

From the screen, the time/division(x) is 0.2ms, so y is equal to

1 kHz =

y=5 Articles: 1. How to Determine Digital Multimeter Accuracy If you are not sure how accurate your digital multimeter measurement is, find its accuracy specifications in the instruction manual, and then read this to get the rest of the story. The accuracy of an electronic measurement defines how close the indicated value is to the true value of the measured signal. Analog meters usually have their accuracy listed as a percentage of the full-scale reading. When a measured value is close to full scale, or at least above 2/3 of full scale, the published accuracy is meaningful. However, the further away the reading is from full scale, the greater it can deviate from the true value when viewed as a percentage of reading, not as percentage of full scale. For example, an analog voltmeter with a 3% accuracy is set to the 0 to 100-V range. Based on this accuracy, its pointer can be 3 volts (100 V x 0.03 = 3 V) below or above the true reading. If the true measured value is, for example, 90.0 V, the meter might read between 87 V and 93 V or 3.3% of reading. However, 10.0 volts measured on a 100-V scale of the same voltmeter can read between 7 V and 13 V, or 30% of the actual reading, while the meter is technically within specifications. So, to maintain reasonable accuracy, select the analog meter range that places the pointer between 2/3 of full scale and full scale.

Compared to analog meters, digital multimeters (DMM) have many practical advantages. They present measurement data in a direct format that does not require calculating the exact value, and they are free from the parallax error of analog meters. Unlike meter movements in analog meters, digital multimeter displays have no moving parts, and they are free from wear and shock failures. DMMs automatically detect polarity, show positive and negative values, have much better overload protection, and offer automatic as well as manual range selection options. All these features lead many DMM users to believe that because the meter displays the measured value in direct decimal format the number shown is the true value of the measured parameter. Others read the meter manual to find the basic accuracy specifications, for example 2%, and expect all readings to be within this margin of error. However, to calculate the actual deviation from the true value that the meter manufacturer can claim and still be within specifications requires a much deeper understanding of the published electrical meter specifications. For example, first, look at how DMM resolution and ranges affect accuracy, then read the examples that follow and learn what the meter manufacturers really mean. Display digits, DMM counts, and resolution. Select the highest range first to keep the meter safe from damage, then switch to progressively lower ranges to obtain the most accurate measurement available on a given meter. Range selection on the least expensive DMMs is usually manual: the user sets the rotary switch to the appropriate range of the desired function. For manual range-changing meters, switch to a range that provides the maximum number of digits for the unknown voltage. When was your meter manufactured or recalibrated? Most meter manufacturers and calibration services guarantee accuracy specifications only for one year. After that, the DMM might not keep its accuracy within published limits. So, if accuracy must be guaranteed, the meter must be calibrated about once a year. Do not use the meter when the ambient temperature is higher or lower than the specified operating temperature range. In addition to the operating temperature specifications of electronic components inside the meter, LCD displays are notorious for becoming sluggish and eventually going blank at subfreezing temperatures. At high temperatures, LCDs display ghost images of the segments that are turned off, and they eventually darken.

This wide temperature range guarantees that the meter will perform reasonably well under most indoor and outdoor conditions. However, beware of inexpensive meters: many are guaranteed to work reliably only between 0C and +40C. In any case, these specifications are true only when the relative humidity is below a specified value, usually 80 to 90%. Do not confuse the operating temperature with the temperature range at which the manufacturer specifies meter accuracy. http://www.designworldonline.com/articles/5416/260/How-to-Determine-Digital-MultimeterAccuracy.aspx 2. Ten considerations for selecting an oscilloscope. BY JOEL WOODWARD Agilent Technologies Santa Clara, CA http://www.agilent.com Oscilloscopes play a vital role in the design of increasingly sophisticated electronics. With signal measurement capabilities that span analog and digital domains, mixed-signal oscilloscopes (MSOs) have become extremely popular for debugging and testing those designs, and every major scope vendor now offers them in addition to traditional digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs). 1. Bandwidth A critical decision is how much bandwidth. Analog bandwidth, which applies to just the analog channels, is paramount, since those channels are the heart of both DSOs and MSOs. Bandwidth is also the primary determinant of scope pricing. Bandwidth is often thought of as the maximum frequency of a signal that can pass cleanly through the scopes front-end amplifiers. In reality, most scope manufacturers define bandwidth as the frequency at which a sinusoidal input signals amplitude will be attenuated by 3 dB, so the analog bandwidth of a scope must actually be higher than the maximum frequency to be

measured. Choosing an scope--and probe system--with adequate bandwidth ensures accurate measurements. This is particularly true for signals with fast edge speeds. One of the new bandwidth considerations is the increasing use of components based on leading-edge IC technologies. Even if the device has relatively slow bus speeds, advanced IC technologies have fast edge speeds with higher-frequency components. 2. MSO or DSO? MSOs are priced 20% to 30% above the equivalent DSO. That is because MSOs offer digital measurement capability in addition to analog measurements. Those measurements can either be taken independently or simultaneously. In the latter case, the resulting measurements are automatically correlated in time. Today, many development teams use off-the-shelf components -- microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs, FPGAs, ASICs, ADCs, and DACs -- as well as significant software content. In such applications, where there is a need to debug real-time hardware/software interactions, the MSO provides unique value. Since design anomalies can span analog and digital domains, the MSO adds significant debug capabilities not covered by a DSO. For example, using an MSO, a team can trigger on a PCI-bus write cycle while evaluating a control signals rise time. 3. Operating system Most major scope vendors produce both Windows-based and non-Windows (RTOS-based) scopes. Windows-based scopes typically offer more analysis, application packages, better connectivity with PCs, and can host other PC-based applications. RTOS-based scopes advantages include almost instantaneous boot up (under 30 s, versus a few minutes for Windows) and the ability to power down quickly and improperly without penalty. Non-Windows scopes typically have higher software reliability, as their OSs are less susceptible to lockups and security issues. Finally, RTOS-based scopes are typically smaller and 20% to 30% less expensive than Windows-based ones, as they dont require a Wintel motherboard or Microsoft software licensing royalties. These advantages typically make RTOS-based scopes a good fit for embedded applications.

4. Update rate More than any other factor or specification, a scopes update rate directly impacts three key attributes: Responsiveness to setting changes. Ability to show subtle detail. Ability to capture infrequent events. Digital scopes work by filling their memory buffer with signal detail, processing this information for viewing on the scope display, and then filling the memory buffer again. This repetitive process typically occurs at a much faster rate than the 60-Hz update rate of the LCD display. So multiple processed acquisitions are sent together to the LCD display for real-time signal viewing. But while it is processing the previous acquisition, the scope is blind to changes that are currently occurring in signals being tested. Some scope architectures enable a fast waveform update rate that minimizes dead time and allows the instrument to show subtle signal detail and infrequent events. Others may have fast update rates with shallow memory, or fast update rates with analog channels only, but when digital channels are turned on, the update rate may drop by 2,000x. An effective test of update rate test is to find a modulated signal, or one with jitter or an event that occurs infrequently. Turn on the scope-under-tests deep memory and both its analog and digital channels. Observe the waveforms on the display. How fast are they updated? Do the analog waveforms look identical to the way they look with only analog channels turned on? Change the time-base setting and see how quickly the scope updates. 5. Memory depth Memory depth is generally not well understood for digital scopes. Complicating the selection process is the fact that a user cant always anticipate how much acquisition depth will be sufficient. Deep memory lets scopes capture longer periods of time while maintaining fast sample rates, ensuring that important signal detail was captured. If a smaller amount of memory is used, their will not be enough data to accurately represent signal detail -- users will zoom into dots. The architecture of a scope determines how effectively it can utilize the deep memory. For example, one MSO with 8 Msample memory will respond instantly when the user turns the knobs (see Fig. 1) and the display will have an accurate view of the signal being tested. Segmented memory techniques let the user capture pulses, bursts, and packets without expending

memory on the dead time between these events. Another MSO ships with a 10-Msample memory standard, but only 10-ksample enabled. Turning on the 10-Msample memory requires significant processing, which the instrument cant do quickly. As a result, the display is sluggish when knobs are turned. When evaluating a digital scopes memory, determine how much comes standard on the instrument and how much is available in the default mode. If you enable the deepest memory offered, how responsive is the instrument when knobs are turned? Does the signal display quality (jitter, signal detail) degrade when deep memory is enabled? 6. Probing A scopes measurement is only as good as the probing used to connect the scope to the target. Loading, input amplitudes, and attenuation are all factors to consider. Differential probes are often needed for applications where noise immunity is essential. Current or high-voltage probes may be needed. If such probes are offered, how much do they add to the purchase price of the instrument? 7. Bus decoding While most major oscilloscope vendors offer bus decode, their implementation approaches vary and impact the quality and usefulness of the tools. DSOs use the analog channels for this, which precludes their use for simultaneous measurement of other signals. MSOs use digital channels to probe and decode bus information, and analog channels to simultaneously capture waveforms. Serial decode can result in a considerable penalty. If significant dead time occurs while the scope is post-processing the measurement, it may miss important activity. Instruments that decode using hardware deliver superior update rates compared to those that decode with software . 8. Setup/analysis time A good way to evaluate a scopes practical efficiency is to predefine several events that you normally need to capture, and time how long it takes you to make these measurements on each oscilloscope you are evaluating. Ask a colleague to run the same tests and youll have your own usability study. Usability has two componentstime to learn and time to relearn. Repeat the same measurements after a two day break and record your time.

9. Physical size Where the scope will be used also impacts what to look for. If the scope will sit on a lab bench, a big screen and shallow depth will be key. Bigger displays have increased in importance as general-purpose scopes need to display more data digital and serial signal sign addition to analog waveforms. However, some teams prefer more traditional rugged form factors with lower profiles. If the scope needs to connect with other instruments in an ATE system, smaller screens usually need less rack height. 10. Application software Scope vendors offer a variety of application software to customize general-purpose measurements. These apps give development teams faster, and often better, insight than they can achieve without it. Examples include serial triggering and decode on-chip FPGA debug, power analysis, and segmented memory. Application software can add 10% to 20% to the oscilloscopes price a cost usually offset by productivity gains. http://www2.electronicproducts.com/Ten_considerations_for_selecting_an_oscilloscope-articlefarcagilent-mar2008-html.aspx 3. Choosing the right power supply The DC Power Supply is a rather fundamental electronic device, however there are hundreds of DC Power Supply products on the market from dozen of manufacturers. Narrowing down the best product for your application and budget can be a daunting task. This article addresses DC Power Supply differentiators, functions and the applications they are best suited for. The articles focus is DC Power Supplies used by engineers, manufacturers, quality professionals and electronic hobbyists for the purposes of R&D, manufacturing and testing. Power Supplies can range in price from $50 to $20,000 and the cost is often directly proportional to the amount of power the device outputs. The primary function of a power supply is to regulate output voltage and current. It takes an input power and regulates the output power as to enforce a constant voltage and current. In the case of DC Power Supplies, the input power is converted from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). There are two basic types of regulated DC Power Supplies: Linear and Switching. Linear power supplies can never output a

higher voltage than the input source. In theory, a linear power supply that is driven by typical 110V wall outlet could only output 110V, assuming the device were 100% efficient. Realistically, no power supply is 100% efficient because power conversion always results in energy loss, usually in the form of heat dissipation. Therefore, linear power supplies usually output voltage that is significantly less than the input. Switching power supplies can step-up, step-down or invert the input voltage. Switching power supplies are usually larger, noisier and more expensive than their linear counterparts, however, switching power supplies are typically more efficient. Choosing the right DC power supply for your application requires definition of some basic design specifications: voltage range, current range, number of outputs, power cleanliness (known as ripple) and programmability. In general, the higher the output voltage and the lower the ripple, the more expensive the DC Power Supply. Multiple outputs and programmability features will also add to the cost. http://www.globaltestsupply.com/blog/technical-articles/choosing-the-right-dc-power-supplyfor-your-application-2/ 4. Using the HP 33120A Function Generator The HP 33120A function generator is a versatile instrument capable of generating sine, square, and other waveforms with frequencies up to 15 MHz. The amplitude and offset of these waveforms may be controlled easily. Also, this instrument can supply a positive or negative dc voltage, which will be useful in many of our early labs. Generating a DC Voltage

It is often useful to use the 33120A to generate a constant dc voltage. In order to set the instrument to dc output mode, press and hold the offset button down for two seconds. The display should show DCV. You can now set the dc output voltage by changing the voltage offset. http://www.ece.utah.edu/~harrison/ece6721/Function_gen_tutorial.pdf

5. How to Measure Volts Using an Analog Multimeter Analog multimeters perform the same voltage measuring function as digital multimeters, but the analog part of the name refers to how the voltage measurement information is presented to the user. In a digital multimeter, the meter displays voltage measurement numbers on a display. For an analog multimeter, the voltage measurement information is presented as deflection of a needle across a dial face. Properly reading the dial face numbers behind the deflected needle is vital in obtaining an accurate measurement of the voltage. a. Connect the probes to your analog multimeter. Probes are color coded red and black, which will match the colors on the multimeter input jacks. Probes have banana jacks that are used to plug into the multimeter jacks. Insert the black banana jack into the negative or common jack, and insert the red banana plug into the positive jack. b. Turn your multimeter on. Turn the range dial to the correct setting for voltage measurements. On some models, you'll need to set the function knob for voltage measurements. When you're measuring AC voltage, the range will be the 120 range for household voltages. If your model does not have a 120 setting, select the next highest range. The range is the uppermost voltage measurement that can be made at that setting. c. Touch the probes to the voltage source you want to measure. For a safety precaution, keep your hands on the insulated parts of the probes. d. Read the number directly behind the deflected needle. The number is the voltage that the probes are measuring. Some analog multimeters will have strips of mirrors across the dial face, behind the needle. This helps to guard against parallax error, which happens when you're not viewing the needle from directly above. Align the needle and its reflection so that the reflection is hidden by the needle. When this occurs, there's no parallax error. e. Remove the probes from the voltage source and turn off the analog multimeter. Write down the voltage measurement, especially if you're worried about forgetting the reading. http://www.ehow.com/how_4897871_measure-volts-using-analog-multimeter.html

Conclusion: As the conclusion, all of the instruments are very useful. From the experiment, we know how to use those electronics instrumentations such as Oscilloscope, function generator, electronics trainer, DC power supply, digital multimeter and analogue multimeter. Like oscilloscope, that instrument can be used to display the wave in both condition which are in DC or in AC. Then, the oscilloscope will be used together by the function generator as the wave will appear on the screen of the oscilloscope when the control of the frequency button at the function generator is adjusted. The DC power supply used to generate either a constant voltage or a constant current which is, it may be used as either a DC voltage source or a DC current source. The digital multimeter will gives the accurate readings for AC/DC voltage rather than the analogue multimeter. References:

http://www.tek.com/ko/education/PDF/Exp_Intro_to_Oscilloscope.pdf http://www.ehow.com/how_5326044_use-function-generator-oscilloscope.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply http://www.electricityforum.com/test-equipment/analog-multimeters.html http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/multimtr.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimeter http://www.pilkguns.com/c8.shtml