Some Thoughts on Geometries and on the Nature

of the Gravitational Field

Eduardo A. Notte-Cuello
(1)
, Roldao da Rocha
(2)
and Waldyr A. Rodrigues Jr.
(3)
(1)
Departamento de Matem aticas,Universidad de La Serena,
Av. Cisternas 1200, La Serena-Chile
(2)
Centro de Matematica, Computa cao e Cognicao
Universidade Federal do ABC, 09210-170, Santo Andre, SP, Brazil
(3)
Institute of Mathematics, Statistics and Scientic Computation
IMECC-UNICAMP CP 6065
13083-859 Campinas, SP, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
July 16, 2009
Abstract
In this paper we show how a gravitational eld generated by a given
energy-momentum distribution (for all realistic cases) can be represented
by distinct geometrical structures (Lorentzian, teleparallel and non null
nonmetricity spacetimes) or that we even can dispense all those geometri-
cal structures and simply represent the gravitational eld as a eld in
the Faradays sense living in Minkowski spacetime. The explicit La-
grangian density for this theory is given and the eld equations (which are
Maxwells like equations) are shown to be equivalent to Einsteins equa-
tions. Some examples are worked in detail in order to convince the reader
that the geometrical structure of a manifold (modulus some topological
constraints) is conventional as already emphasized by Poincare long ago,
and thus the realization that there are disctints geometrical representa-
tions (and a physical model related to a deformation of the continuum sup-
porting Minkowski spacetime) for any realistic gravitational eld strongly
suggests that we must investigate the origin of its physical nature. We
hope that this paper will convince readers that this is indeed the case.
1 Introduction
Physics students learn General Relativity (GR) as the modern theory of grav-
itation. In that theory each gravitational eld generated by a given energy-
momentum tensor is represented by a Lorentzian spacetime, i.e., a structure
(M, D, g,
g
, ) where M is a non compact (locally compact) 4-dimensional
1
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1


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m
a
t
h
-
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h
]


1
4

J
u
l

2
0
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9
Hausdor manifold, g is a Lorentzian metric on M and D is its Levi-Civita
connection. Moreover M is supposed oriented by the volume form
g
and the
symbol means that the spacetime is time orientable
1
. From the geometrical
objects in the structure (M, D, g,
g
, ) we can calculate the Riemann curvature
tensor R of D and a nontrivial GR model is one in which R ,= 0. In that way
textbooks often say that in GR spacetime is curved. Unfortunately many people
mislead the curvature of a connection D on M with the fact that M can eventu-
ally be a bent surface in an (pseudo) Euclidean space with a sucient number of
dimensions
2
. This confusion leads to all sort of wishful thinking because many
forget that GR does not x the topology
3
of M that often must be put by
hand when solving a problem, and thus think that they can bend spacetime if
they have an appropriate kind of some exotic matter. Worse, the insistence in
supposing that the gravitational eld is geometry lead the majority of physicists
to relegate the search for the real physical nature of the gravitational eld as
not important at all
4
.Instead, students are advertised that GR is considered by
may physicists as the most beautiful physical theory [23]. However textbooks
with a few exceptions (see, e.g., the excellent book by Sachs and Wu [39]) for-
get to say to their readers that in GR there are no genuine conservation laws
of energy-momentum and angular momentum unless spacetime has some ad-
ditional structure which is not present in a general Lorentzian spacetime [27].
Only a few people tried to develop consistently theories where the gravitational
eld (at least from the classical point of view) is a eld in the Faradays sense
living in Minkowski spacetime (see below).
In this paper we want to recall two important results that hopefully will
lead people to realize that eventually it is time to disclose the real nature of the
gravitational eld
5
. The rst result is that the representation of gravitational
elds by Lorentzian spacetimes is eventually no more than an consequence of
to the dierential geometry knowledge of Einstein and Grossmann when they
where struggling to nd a consistent way to describe the gravitational eld
6
. In-
deed, there are some geometrical structures dierent from (M, D, g,
g
, ) that
can equivalently represent such a eld. The second result is that the gravita-
tional eld (in all known situations) can also be nicely represented as a eld in
1
For details, please consult, e.g., [36, 39].
2
Any manifold M, dimM = n according to the Whitney theorem can be realized as a
submanifold of R
m
, with m = 2n. However, if M carries additional structure the number m
in general must be greater than 2n. Indeed, it has been shown by Eddington [9] that if dim
M = 4 and if M carries a Lorentzian metric g, which moreover satises Einsteins equations,
then M can be locally embedded in a (pseudo)euclidean space R
1,9
Also, isometric embeddings
of general Lorentzian spacetimes would require a lot of extra dimensions [4]. Indeed, a compact
Lorentzian manifold can be embedded isometrically in R
2,46
and a non-compact one can be
embedded isometrically in R
2,87
!
3
In particular the topology of the universe that we live in is not known, as yet [53].
4
See a nice discussion of this issue in [24].
5
Of course, the authors know that one of the claims of string theory is that it nicely
describes gravitation. In that theory General Relativity is only an approximated theory valid
for distances much greater than the Planck length.
6
See some detais below.
2
the Faradays sense [26] living in a xed background spacetime
7
. Concerning
the alternative geometrical models, the particular cases where the connection is
teleparallel (i.e., it is metrical compatible, has null Riemann curvature tensor
and non null torsion tensor) and the one where the connection is not metri-
cal compatible (i.e., its nonmetricity tensor A

,= 0) will be addressed below.

However to understand how those alternative geometrical models (and the phys-
ical model) can be constructed and why the Lorentzian spacetime model was
Einsteins rst choice, it is eventually worth to recall some historical facts con-
cerning attempts by Einstein (and others) to build a geometrical unied theory
of the gravitational and electromagnetic elds.
We start with the word torsion. Although such a word seems to have been
introduced by Cartan [2] in 1922 the fact is that the concept behind the name
already appeared in a Riccis paper [31] from 1895 and was also used in [32]! In
those papers Ricci introduced what is now called the Cartans moving frames
and the teleparallel geometry
8
.
Moreover in 1901 Ricci and Levi-Civita
9
published a joy [33], which has
become the bible of tensor calculus and which has been extensively studied
by Einstein and Grossmann in their search for the theory of the gravitational
eld
10
. However Einstein and Grossmann seems to have studied only the rst
part of reference 4 and so missed the Cartans moving method and the con-
cept of torsion. It seems also that only after 1922 Einstein become interested in
the second chapter of the joy, titled La Geometrie Intrinseque Comme Instru-
ment de Calcul and discovered torsion and the teleparallel geometry
11
. As it is
well known he tried to identify a certain contraction of the torsion tensor of a
teleparallel geometry with the electromagnetic potential, but after sometime he
discovered that the idea did not work. Einsteins rst papers on the subject
12
are [11, 12, 13]. Also in a paper which Einstein wrote in 1925 [10] the torsion
tensor concept already appeared, since he considered as one of his eld vari-
ables the antisymmetric part of a non symmetric connection. All those papers
by Einstein have been translated into English by Unzicker and Case [44] and
can be downloaded from the arXiv. We also can learn in [7, 18] that Cartan
tried to explain the teleparallel geometry to Einstein when he visited Paris in
1922 using the example of what we call the Nunes connection (or navigator
connection) on the punctured sphere. Since this example illustrates in a crystal
clear way the fact that one must not confound the Riemann curvature of a given
connection dened on a manifold M with the fact that M may be viewed as a
7
The preferred one is, of course, Minkowski spacetime, the simple choice. But, the true
background spacetime may be eventually a more complicated one, since that manifold must
represent the global topological structure of the universe, something that is not known at the
time of this writing [53].
8
Also known as Weintzbock geometry [55].
9
A Riccis student at that time.
10
An english translation of the joy with very useful comments has been done by the math-
ematical physicist Robert Hermann [21] in 1975 and that text (and many others books by
Hermann) can be downloaded from http://books.google.com.br/books?q=robert+hermann
11
Some interesting historical details may be found in [18, 40]
12
For a complete list of Einsteins papers on the subject see [18].
3
bent hypersurface embedded in an Euclidean space (with appropriate number
of dimensions) it will be presented in Appendix A. A comparison of the par-
allel transport according to the Nunes connection and according to the usual
Levi-Civita connection is done
13
, and it is shown that the Nunes connection the
Riemann curvature of the punctured sphere is null. In this sense the geometry
of the punctured sphere is conventional as emphasized by Poincare [30] long
ago.
As we already said the main objective of the present paper is to clarify the
fact that there are dierent ways of geometrically representing a gravitational
eld, such that the eld equations in each representation result equivalent to
Einsteins eld equations. Explicitly we mean by this statement the following:
any model of a gravitational eld in GR represented by a Lorentzian spacetime
(with non null Riemann curvature tensor and null torsion tensor which is also
parallelizable
14
) is equivalent to a teleparallel spacetime (i.e., a spacetime struc-
ture equipped with a metrical compatible teleparallel connection, which has null
Riemann curvature tensor and non null torsion tensor)
15
or equivalent to a spe-
cial spacetime structure, where the manifold M is equipped with a Minkowski
metric, and where there is also dened a connection such that its nonmetricity
tensor is not null. The teleparallel possibility is described in details in Section 2
using the modern theory of dierential forms and we claim that our presentation
leaves also clear that we can even dispense with the concept of a connection in
the description of a gravitational eld
16
, it is only necessary for such a represen-
tation to exists that the manifold M representing the set of all possible events
be parallelizable, admitting four global (not all exact) 1-form elds coupled in a
specic way (see below). The second possibility is illustrated with an example
in Section 3. In Section 4 we present the conclusions.
2 Torsion as a Description of Gravity
2.1 Some Notation
Suppose that a 4-dimensional M manifold is parallelizable, thus admitting a set
of four global linearly independent vector e
a
sec TM, a = 0, 1, 2, 3 elds
17
such e
a
is a basis for TM and let
a
,
a
sec T

M be the corresponding
dual basis (
a
(e
b
) =
a
b
). Suppose also that not all the
a
are closed, i.e.,
d
a
,= 0, (1)
13
The material of Appendix A follows the presentation in Section 4.7.7 of [36].
14
A manifold M is said to be parallelizable if it admits four global linearly independent
vector elds.
15
There are hundreds of papers (as e.g., [6]) on the subject.
16
Explicitly, we mean that the gravitational eld may be interpreted as a eld in the sense
of Faraday, as it is the case of the electromagnetic eld.
17
We recall that sec TM means section of the tangent bundle and sec T

M means section of
the cotangent bundle. Also sec T
r
s
M means the bundle of tensors of type (r, s) and sec
^
r
T

M
a section of the bundle of r-forms elds.
4
for a least some a = 0, 1, 2, 3. The 4-form eld
0

1

2

3
denes a
(positive) orientation for M.
Now, the
a
can be used to dene a Lorentzian metric eld in M by
dening g sec T
0
2
M by
g :=
ab

b
, (2)
with the matrix with entries
ab
being the diagonal matrix (1, 1, 1, 1).
Then, according to g the e
a
are orthonormal, i.e.,
e
a

g
e
b
:= g(e
a
, e
b
) =
ab
. (3)
Remark 1 Since according to Eq.(3) e
0
is a global time like vector eld it
follows it denes a time orientation in M which we denote by . It follows
that that the 4-tuple (M, g,
g
, ) is part of a structure dening a Lorentzian
spacetime and can serve as a substructure to model a gravitational eld in GR.
For future use we also introduce g sec T
2
0
M by
g :=
ab
e
a
e
b
, (4)
and we write:

b
:= g(
a
,
b
) =
ab
. (5)
Due to the hypothesis given by Eq.(1) the vector elds e
a
, a = 0, 1, 2, 3 will
in general satisfy
[e
a
, e
b
] = c
k
ab
e
k
, (6)
where the c
k
ab
are the structure coecients of the basis e
a
. It can been easily
shown that
18
d
a
=
1
2
c
a
kl

k

l
. (7)
Now, we introduce two dierent metric compatible connections on M, namely
D (the Levi-Civita connection of g) and a teleparallel connection , such that
D
ea
e
b
=
c
ab
e
c
, D
ea

b
=
b
ac

c
,

ea
e
b
= 0,
ea

b
= 0. (8)
The objects
c
ab
are called the connection coecients of the connection D in
the e
a
basis and the objects
a
b
sec T

M dened by

a
b
:=
a
kb

k
, (9)
are called the connection 1-forms in the e
a
basis.
Remark 2 The connection coecients
b
ac
of and the connection 1-forms
of in the basis e
a
are null according to the second line of Eq.(8) and thus
the basis e
a
is called teleparallel. So, the connection denes an absolute
parallelism on M. We recall that as said in the introduction that idea has been
introduced by Ricci.
18
See, e.g.,[36].
5
Remark 3 Of course, as it is well known the Riemann curvature tensor of D,
is in general non null in all points of M, but the torsion tensor of D is zero in
all points of M. On the other hand the Riemann curvature tensor of is null
in all points of M, whereas the torsion tensor of is non null in all points of
M.
We recall also in order to x notation that for a general connection, say D
on M (not necessarily metric compatible) the torsion and curvature operations
and the torsion and curvature tensors of a given general connection, say D, are
respectively the mappings:
(u, v) = D
u
v D
v
u [u, v], (10)
(u, v) = D
u
D
v
D
v
D
u
D
[u,v]
(11)
and
T (, u, v) = ((u, v)) , (12)
R(w, , u, v) = ((u, v)w), (13)
for every u, v, w sec TM and sec
_
1
T

M. In particular we write
T
a
bc
:= T (
a
, e
b
,e
c
) (14a)
R
b
a cd
:= R(e
a
,
b
, e
c
, e
d
), (14b)
and dene the Ricci tensor by
Ricci := R
ac

c
, (15a)
R
ac
:= R
b
a cb
= R
ca
. (15b)
We shall need also in order to x our conventions to briey recall the def-
initions of the scalar product and left and right contractions on the so called
Hodge bundle (

M, g) where

M =

4
r=0

r
T

M is the bundle of
nonhomogeneous multiforms.
So, if /, B sec
_
r
T

M , / =
1
r!
A
i1...ir

i1
...
ir
, B =
1
r!
B
j1...jr

j1
...
jr
,
their scalar product
g
(induced by g) is the linear mapping
/
g
B = (
1
r!
)A
i1...ir
B
j1...jr
_
_
_
_
_

i1

j1
... ...
i1

jr
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...

ir

j1
... ...
ir

jr
_
_
_
_
_
. (16)
Also, for / sec
_
r
T

M, ( sec
_
s
T

M it is /
g
( = 0. The left and right
contractions of A, } sec

M are dened for arbitrary (nonhomogeneous)

6
multiforms as the mappings
g
:

M and
g
:

M such that for all Z sec

M.
(A
g
})
g
Z = }
g
(

A Z),
(A
g
})
g
Z = A
g
(Z

}), (17a)
where the tilde means the operation of reversion, e.g., if B =
1
r!
B
i1...ir

i1
...
ir
,
then

B =
1
r!
B
i1...ir

ir
...
i1
.
The Hodge star operator (or Hodge dual) is the linear mapping
g
:
_
r
T

M
_
nr
T

M
/
g
B = (/
g
B)
g
, (18)
for every /, B
_
r
T

M. The inverse
g
1
:
_
nr
T

M
_
r
T

M of the
Hodge star operator is given by

g
1
= (1)
r(nr)
sgn
.
g
g
, (19)
where sgn g = det g/[ det g[ denotes the sign of the determinant of the matrix
with entries g
ij
= g(e
i
, e
j
). The Hodge coderivative operator
g
(associated to
g) is dened for / sec
_
r
T

M by

g
/ = (1)
r

g
1
d
g
/. (20)
2.2 Cartans Structure Equations
Given that we introduced two dierent connections D and dened in the
manifold M we can write two dierent pairs of Cartans structure equations,
each one of the pairs describing respectively the geometry of the structures
(M, D, g,
g
, ) and (M, , g,
g
, ) which will be called respectively a Lorentzian
spacetime and a teleparallel spacetime.
2.2.1 Cartans Structure Equations for D
In this case we write

a
:= d
a
+
a
b

b
= 0,

a
b
:= d
a
b
+
a
c

c
b
, (21)
where the
a
sec

2
T

M, a = 0, 1, 2, 3 and the
a
b
sec

2
T

M, a, b =
0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively the torsion and the curvature 2-forms of D with

a
=
1
2
T
a
bc

b

c
,
a
b
=
1
2
R
a
b cd

c

d
. (22)
7
2.2.2 Cartans Structure Equations for
In this case since
a
b
= 0 we have

a
:= d
a
+
a
b

b
= d
a
,

a
b
:= d
a
b
+
a
c

c
b
= 0, (23)
where the

a
sec

2
T

M, a = 0, 1, 2, 3 and the

a
b
sec

2
T

M, a, b =
0, 1, 2, 3 and are respectively the torsion and the curvature 2-forms of given
by formulas analogous to the ones in Eq.(22).
We next suppose that the
a
are the basic variables representing a gravi-
tation eld. We postulate for the
a
interacts with the matter elds though
the following Lagrangian density
19
L = L
g
+L
m
, (24)
where L
m
is the matter Lagrangian density and
L
g
=
1
2
d
a

g
d
a
+
1
2

a

g

a
+
1
4
(d
a

a
)
g
_
d
b

b
_
, (25)
Remark 4 This Lagrangian is not invariant under arbitrary point dependent
Lorentz rotations of the basic cotetrad elds. In fact, if
a

a
=
a
b

b
, where
for each x M,
a
b
(x) L

+
(the homogeneous and orthochronous Lorentz
group) we get that
L

g
=
1
2
d
a

g
d

a
+
1
2

a

g

a
+
1
4
(d
a

a
)
g
_
d
b

b
_
, (26)
diers from L
g
by an exact dierential. So, the eld equations derived by the
variational principle results invariant under a change of gauge.
20
Now, to derive the eld equations directly from Eq.(25) is a nontrivial and
laborious exercise, whose details the interested reader may nd in [36]. The
result is:
d
g
o
d
+
g
t
d
=
g
T
d
, (27)
where

g
t
d
:=
L
g

d
=
1
2
[(
d

g
d
a
)
g
d
a
d
a
(
d

g
d
a
)]
+
1
2
d
_

a
_

g
d
g

a
+
1
2
d
_

a
_

g
d
g

a
+
1
2
d
d

g
(d
a

a
)

1
4
d
a

a

_

g
(d
c

c
)
_

1
4
_

g
(d
c

c
)
_

g
(d
a

a
) , (28)
19
We observe that the rst term in Eq.(25) is just the Lagrangian density used by Einstein
in [13].
20
See details in [36].
8

g
o
d
:=
L
g
d
d
=
g
d
d

_

a
_

g
d
g

a
+
1
2

d

g
(d
a

a
) . (29)
and the
21

g
T
d
:=
L
m

d
=
g
T
d
(30)
are the energy-momentum 3-forms of the matter elds
22
.
Recalling that from Eq.(23) it is

a
:= d
a
, the eld equations (Eq.(27))
can be written as
d
g
T
d
=
g
T
d

g
t
d

g
h
d
, (31)
where
h
d
= d
__

a
_

g
d
g

a

1
2

d

g
(d
a

a
)
_
. (32)
Finally recalling the denition of the Hodge coderivative operator ( Eq.( 20))
we can write Eq.(31) as

g
T
d
= (T
d
+t
d
), (33)
with the t
d
sec

1
T

M given by
t
d
:= t
d
+h
d
, (34)
legitimate energy-momenta
23
1-form elds for the gravitational eld. Note that
the total energy momentum tensor of matter plus the gravitational eld is triv-
ially conserved in our theory, i.e.,

g
(T
d
+t
d
) = 0, (35)
since
g
2
T
d
= 0.
Remark 5 In [26] a theory of the gravitational eld in Minkowski spacetime
(M R
4
,

g, D,
g
, ) has been presented where a nontrivial gravitational eld
conguration was interpreted as generating an eective Lorentzian spacetime
(M R
4
, g, D,
g
, ) where g satises Einstein equations and where probe par-
ticles and/or elds move. It was assumed there that the gravitational eld g =

ab

b
is a eld in Faraday sense
24
, i.e., the elds
a
have their dynamics de-
scribed by a (postulated) Lagrangian density like the one in Eq.(25). Moreover,
it was postulated that the
a
couple universally with the matter elds and that the
21
We suppose that Lm does not depend explicitly on the d
a
.
22
In reality, due the conventions used in this paper the true energy-momentum 3-forms are

g
T
d
=
g
T
d
.
23
Indeed, for each index d the rst member of Eq.(33) is a 1-from eld and also T
d
is an
1-form eld , so F
d
+T
d
= t
d
is a 1-form eld .
24
This means that it is interpreted as a eld with an ontology analogous to the electro-
magnetic eld.
9
presence of energy-momentum due to matter elds in some region of Minkowski
spacetime distorts the Lorentz vacuum in much the same way that stresses in an
elastic body distorts it. Now, distortions (or deformations) in the theory of dislo-
cations according to [56] can be of the elastic or plastic type. An elastic distortion
is described by a dieomorphism h: M M. In this case the induced metric
is g = h

(analogous to the Cauchy-Green tensor [16] of elasticity theory) and

according to Remark 250 in [36] its Levi-Civita connection is h

D. This implies
that the structure (hM R
4
, g, h

D,
g
, ) is again Minkowski spacetime. In
the original versions of [26, 36] this was the type of deformation considered, but
this has been corrected in improved versions of those manuscripts, respectively
at the arXiv and at http://ime.unicamp.br/walrod/recentes where an errata to
Chapter 10 of [36] at . In the quoted errata, the deformation is taken to be of
the plastic type and represented by a distortion extensor eld M, i.e., a linear
mapping h :
_
1
T

M
_
1
T

M such that g = h

h, where g is the extensor

eld associated with g (see below)
25
. A paper describing a detailed theory of
gravitation as a plastic deformation of the Lorentz vacuum is in preparation
[14].
Remark 6 In electromagnetic theory on a Lorentzian spacetime we have only
one potential A sec

1
T

M and the eld equations are

dF = 0,
g
F = J, (36)
where F sec

2
T

M is the electromagnetic eld and J sec

1
T

M is
the electric current. The two Maxwell equations in Eq.(36) can be written as
a single equation using the Cliord bundle formalism [36]. In this formalism

M ((M, g) . Then it can be shown that in this case = d

g
=
a
D
ea
is the Dirac operator (acting on sections of ((M, g)) and we can write Maxwell
equation as
F = J. (37)
Now, if you fell uncomfortable in needing four distinct potentials
a
for describ-
ing the gravitational eld you can put then together dening a vector valued
dierential form
=
a
e
a
, (38)
and in this case the gravitational eld equations are
d

= 0,

= (T +t), (39)
where

=

a
e
a
, T = T
a
e
a
, t = t
a
e
a
. By considering the bundle ((M, g)
TM we can even write the two equations in Eq.(39) as a single equation, i.e.,

= T +t (40)
25
Recently we take knowledge that Coll [5] found that any Lorentzian metric can be written
as a deformation of the Minkowski metric involving a 2-form eld. We will investigate in
another publication the relationship of ours and Colls ideas.
10
2.3 Relation with Einsteins Theory
At this point the reader may be asking: which is the relation of the theory just
presented with Einsteins GR theory? The answer is that recalling that the
connection 1-forms
cd
of D are given by

cd
=
1
2
_

g
d
c

g
d
d
+
c

g
_

g
d
a
_

a
_
(41)
we can show through a laborious (but standard) exercise (see [36] for details)
that the rst member of Eq.(27) is exactly
g
(
d
(the Einstein 3-forms). So,
we have

g
(
d
:=
g
(
d

1
2
R
d
), (42)
with
d
= R
d
a

a
the Ricci 1-forms and R the scalar curvature. Then Eq.(27)
results equivalent to

1
2
R
d
= T
d
(43)
and taking the dot product of both members with
a
we get
R
d
a

1
2
R
d
a
= T
d
a
, (44)
which is the usual tensorial form of Einsteins equations.
Remark 7 When the
a
and the d
a
are packed in the form of the connection
1-forms the Lagrangian density L
g
becomes
L
g
= L
EH
+ d(
a

g
d
a
), (45)
where
L
EH
=
1
2

cd

g
(
c

d
) (46)
(with
cd
given by Eq.(21)) is the Einstein-Hilbert Lagrangian density.
3 A Comment on Einstein Most Happy Though
The exercises presented above indicates that a geometrical interpretation for the
gravitational eld is no more than an option among many ones. Indeed, it is not
necessary to introduce any connection D or on M to have a perfectly well
dened theory of the gravitational eld whose eld equations are equivalent to
the Einstein eld equations. Note that we have not give until now any details
on the global topology of the world manifold M. However, since we admitted
that M carries four global (not all closed) 1-form elds
a
which denes the
object g it follows that (M, D, g,
g
, ) is a spin manifold [17, 36], i.e., admit
spinor elds. This, of course, is necessary if the theory is to be useful in the real
world since fundamental matter elds are spinor elds. The most simple spin
11
manifold is clearly Minkowski spacetime which is represented by a structure
(M,

D, ,

, ) where M R
4
, and

D is the Levi-Civita connection of the
Minkowski metric . In that case it is possible to interpret g as a eld in the
Faraday sense living in (M,

D, ,

, ), or to work directly with the

a
which
has a well dened dynamics and coupling to the matter elds.
At last we want to comment that as well known in Einsteins GR one can
easily distinguish in any real physical laboratory [28] (despite some claims on
the contrary) a true gravitational eld from an acceleration eld of a given ref-
erence frame in Minkowski spacetime. This is because in GR the mark of a
real gravitational eld is the non null Riemann curvature tensor of D, and the
Riemann curvature tensor of the Levi-Civita connection of

D (present in the
denition of Minkowski spacetime) is null. However if we interpret a gravita-
tional eld as the torsion 2-forms on the structure (M, , g,
g
, ) viewed as a
deformation of Minkowski spacetime then one can also interpret an acceleration
eld of an accelerated reference frame in Minkowski spacetime as generating
an eective teleparallel spacetime (M,
e
, ,

, ). This can be done as follows.

Let Z sec TU, U M with (Z, Z) = 1 an accelerated reference frame on
Minkowski spacetime. This means (see, e.g., [36] for details) that
a =

D
Z
Z = 0. (47)
Call e
0
= Z and dene an accelerated reference frame as non trivial if
0
=
(Z, ) is not an exact dierential. Next recall that in U M there always
exist three other -orthonormal vector elds e
i
, i = 1, 2, 3 such that e
a
is an
-orthonormal basis for TU, i.e.,
=
ab

b
,
where
a
be the dual basis
26
of e
a
. We then have

D
ea
e
b
=
c
ab
e
c
,

D
ea

b
=
b
ac

c
. (48)
What remains in order to be possible to interpret an acceleration eld as
a kind of gravitational eld is to introduce on M a -metrical compatible
connection
e
such that the e
a
is teleparallel according to it. We have
e

ea
e
b
= 0,
e

ea

b
= 0. (49)
With this connection the structure (M R
4
,
e
, ,

, ) has null Riemann

curvature tensor but a non null torsion tensor, which an easy calculation shows
to be related with the acceleration and the other coecients
c
ab
of the connec-
tion

D in that basis, which describe the motion on Minkowski spacetime of a
grid represented by the orthonormal frame e
a
. Sch ucking [40] thinks that
such a description of the gravitational eld makes Einstein most happy though,
i.e., the equivalence principle (understood as equivalence between acceleration
26
In general we will also have that d
i
= 0, i = 1, 2, 3.
12
and gravitational eld) a legitimate mathematical idea. However, a true gravi-
tational eld must satisfy (at least with good approximation) Eq.(31), whereas
there is no single reason for an acceleration eld to satisfy that equation.
4 A Model for the Gravitational Field Repre-
sented by the Nonmetricity of a Connection
In this section we suppose that the world manifold M is a 4-dimensional man-
ifold dieomorphic to R
4
. Let moreover (t, x, y, z) = (x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) be global
Cartesian coordinates for M.
Next, introduce on M two metric elds:
= dt dt dx
1
dx
1
dx
2
dx
2
dx
3
dx
3
, (50)
and
g =
_
1
2m
r
_
dt dt

_
_
1
2m
r
_
1
1
_
r
2
_
(x
1
)
2
dx
1
dx
1
+ (x
2
)
2
dx
2
dx
2
+ (x
3
)
2
dx
3
dx
3

dx
1
dx
1
+
_
1
2m
r
_
1
(dx
2
dx
2
dx
3
dx
3
). (51)
In Eq. (51)
r =
_
(x
1
)
2
+ (x
2
)
2
+ (x
3
)
2
. (52)
Now, introduce (t, r, , ) = (x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) as the usual spherical coordi-
nates for M. Recall that
x
1
= r sin cos , x
2
= r sin sin , x
3
= r cos (53)
and the range of these coordinates in are r > 0, 0 < < , 0 < < 2. For
g the range of the r variable must be (0, 2m) (2m, ).
As can be easily veried, the metric g in spherical coordinates is:
g =
_
1
2m
r
_
dtdt
_
1
2m
r
_
1
drdrr
2
(dd+sin
2
dd), (54)
which we immediately recognize as the Schwarzschild metric of GR. Of course,
is a Minkowski metric on M.
As next step we introduce two distinct connections,

D and D on M. We
assume that

D is the Levi-Civita connection of in M and D is the Levi-Civita
13
connection of g in M. Then, by denition (see, e.g., [36] for more details) the
ammetricities tensors of

D relative to and of D relative to g are null, i.e.,

D = 0,
Dg = 0. (55)
However, the nonmetricity tensor A

sec T
0
3
M of

D relative to g is non
null, i.e.,

Dg = A

,=0, (56)
and also the nonmetricity tensor A
g
sec T
0
3
M of D relative to is non null,
i.e.,
D = A
g
,=0. (57)
We now calculate the components of A

in the coordinated bases

for
TM and dx

for T

M associated with the coordinates (x

0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) of M.
Since

D is the Levi-Civita connection of the Minkowski metric we have that

= L

= 0,

dx

= L

dx

= 0. (58)
i.e., the connection coecients L

of

D in this basis are null. Then, A

=
Q

dx

dx

dx

is given by
A

=

Dg =

D

_
g

dx

dx

_
dx

= (
g

)dx

dx

dx

. (59)
To x ideas, recall that for Q
100
it is,
Q
100
=

x
1
_
1
2m
_
(x
1
)
2
+ (x
2
)
2
+ (x
3
)
2
_
= 2m

x
1
_
1
_
(x
1
)
2
+ (x
2
)
2
+ (x
3
)
2
_
=
2mx
1
[(x
1
)
2
+ (x
2
)
2
+ (x
3
)
2
]
3
2
=
2mx
1
r
3
, (60)
which is non null for x
1
,= 0. Note that also that Q
010
= Q
001
= 0.
4.1 (M, ,

D), (M, , D), (M, g, D) and (M, g,

D)
From what has been said it is obvious that since (M, ) and (M, g) are both ori-
entable and time orientable, then (M, ,

D), (M, g, D) are part of the structures
representing respectively Minkowski spacetime and Schwarzschild spacetime.
More precisely, (M, g, D,
g
, ) represents in GR the gravitational eld of a point
14
mass with world line given by (t, 0, 0, 0). As usual in GR this world line is left
out of the eective manifold
27
.
We claim that (M,

D, g) or (M, , D) are legitimate equivalent representa-
tions for the gravitational eld described in GR by the substructure (M, g, D).
To nd, e.g., the relation between the models (M, g,

D) and (M, g, D) it is
necessary to recall that if in the bases

for TM and dx

for T

M, we
have
D

,
D

dx

dx

, (61)
and the Christoel symbols are not all null. Moreover, in the spherical coordi-
nates introduced above

= L

,

D

dx

= L

dx

, D

dx

dx

(62)
and the L

and

are not all null. Now, L

and

are related by
28
:
L

+
1
2
S

, (63)
where S

are the components of the so called strain tensor of the connection

D relative to the connection D. For the present case it is

S

= g

(Q

+ Q

). (64)
Now, since in the Cartesian coordinates L

= 0, but not all

are null
we get

=
1
2
S

(65)
and thus, e.g.,
g
1

00
=
1
2
S
100
=
1
2
Q
100
=
mx
1
r
3
. (66)
4.2 A

as the Gravitational Field

Note that using coordinates (Riemann normal coordinates

covering V
U M) naturally adapted to a reference frame Zsec TV
29
in free fall ac-
cording to GR (D
Z
Z = 0, d = 0, = g(Z, )) it is possible to put the
27
The manifold where Schwarzschild solution is obtained is one with boundary, i.e., it is
R[0, ) S
2
. The reason for that is that almost all mathematical physicists use manifolds
with boundary in order to avoid the use of distributions (generalized functions). Indeed, for a
rigorous point of view, taking into account that Einsteins equations are non linear we cannot
solve it using Schwartz distributions. To solve problems involving singular distributions in
GR in a rigorous way it is necessary to use Colombeau theory of generalized functions as
described, e.g., in [20].
28
See, e.g., Section 4.5.8 of [36].
29
For the mathematical denitions of reference frames, naturally adapted coordinates to a
reference frame and observers, see, e.g., Chapter 5 of [36].
15
connection coecients of the Levi-Civita connection D of g equal to zero in all
points of the world line of a free fall observer (an observer is here modelled as
an integral line of a reference frame Z, where Z is a time like vector eld
pointing to the future such that Z[

).
In the Riemann normal coordinates system covering U M, it is obvious
that not all the connection coecients of the connection

D (that relative to g is
a non metrical one) are null. Moreover, the nonmetricity tensor A

is not null
and it represents in our model the true gravitational eld. Indeed, an observer
following does not fell any force along its world line because the gravitational
force represented by the nonmetricity eld A

is compensated by an inertial
force represented by the non null connection coecients
30
L

of

D in the basis

.
The situation is somewhat analogous to what happens in any non inertial
reference frame which, of course, may be conveniently used in any Special Rela-
tivity problem (as e.g., in a rotating disc [37]), where the connection coecients
of the Levi-Civita connection of are not all null.
Remark 8 The theoretical denition of standard clocks of GR are reasonably
well realized by atomic clocks, i.e., under certain limits atomic clocks behave
as theoretically predicted (see however [35]) Note however that atomic clocks
are not the standard clocks of the model proposed here. We would say that the
gravitational eld distorts the period of the atomic clocks relative to the standard
clocks of the proposed model where gravity is represented by a nonmetricity ten-
sor
31
. But, who are the devices that now materialize those concepts? Well, they
may are paper concepts, like the notion of time in some Newtonian theories.
They are dened and calculated in order to make correct predictions. However,
given the status of present technology we can easily imagine how to build devices
for directly realizing the standard clocks (and rulers) of the proposed model.
5 Conclusions
In this paper we recalled two important results. The rst is that a gravitational
eld generated by a given energy-momentum distribution can be represented by
distinct geometrical structures (Lorentzian, teleparallel and non null nonmetric-
ity spacetimes). The second important result is that we can even dispense all
those geometrical structures and simply represent the gravitational eld as a
eld in the Faradays sense living in Minkowski spacetime. The explicit La-
grangian density for this theory has been discussed and the eld equations have
been shown to be equivalent to Einsteins equations. We hope that our study
claries the real dierence between mathematical models and physical reality
30
The explicit form of the coecients L

may be found in Chapter 5 of [36].

31
Schwinger [41] showed with very simple arguments how the gravitational eld distorts
the period of atomic clocks making then to register the proper time predicted by GR. His
arguments can be easily adapted for the alternative models studied in this paper, because once
g is known experimentally we can determine with the mathematical techniques described
in [36].
16
and leads people to think about the real physical nature of the gravitational
eld (and also of the electromagnetic eld
32
)
As a nal remark, we want to leave clear that after studying Einsteins
papers (and also papers by many others authors) on the use Riemann-Cartan
33
to describe a classical unied theory of gravitation and electromagnetism
we became convinced that it seems impossible to represent the electromagnetic
eld using a contraction of the torsion tensor (or the torsion tensor) without
introducing ad hoc hypothesis. Having said that we recall that from time to
time some authors return to the embryo of Einsteins original idea claiming
to have obtained an unied theory of gravitation and electromagnetism using
that tool. Among those theories that appeared in the last few years some are
completely worthless, since based in a very bad use of Mathematical concepts,
but some looks at least at a rst sight interesting enough (at least from the
mathematical point of view) to deserve some comments, which will be discussed
elsewhere
34
.
A The Levi-Civita and the Nunes Connection
on

S
2
Consider S
2
, an sphere of radius R = 1 embedded in R
3
. Let (x
1
, x
2
) = (, )
0 < < , 0 < < 2, be the standard spherical coordinates of S
2
, which
covers all the open set U which is S
2
with the exclusion of a semi-circle uniting
the north and south poles.
Introduce the coordinate bases

= dx

(67)
for TU and T

U. Next introduce the orthonormal bases e

a
,
a
for TU and
T

U with
e
1
=
1
, e
2
=
1
sin x
1

2
, (68a)

1
= dx
1
,
2
= sin x
1
dx
2
. (68b)
32
As suggested, e.g., by the works of Laughlin [24] and Volikov [52]. Of course,, it may be
necessary to explore also other ideas, like e.g., existence of branes in string theory. But this
is a subject for another publication.
33
The teleparallel spaces are particular cases of the Riemann-Cartan ones. More on the
classication of spacetime geometries may be found in [36].
34
We have in mind here: (a) some papers by Vargas and Vargas and Torr, [47, 48, 49, 50]
where they claim that using the torsion tensor of some special Finsler connections it is possi-
ble to obtain a unied theory of gravitation and electromagnetism (for related papers on the
subject by those authors, please consult http://cartan-einstein-unication.com/published-
papers.html); (b) a paper by Unzicker where he claims to have found a description of elec-
tromagnetism including the existence of quantized charges using teleparallel spacetimes with
defects [45, 46].
17
Then,
[e
i
, e
j
] = c
k
ij
e
k
, (69)
c
2
12
= c
2
21
= cot x
1
.
Moreover the metric g sec T
0
2
S
2
inherited form the ambient Euclidean metric
is:
g = dx
1
dx
1
+ sin
2
x
1
dx
2
dx
2
=
1

1
+
2

2
. (70)
The Levi-Civita connection D of g has the following non null connections
coecients

in the coordinate basis (just introduced):

D

2
21
=

=
2
12
=

= cot ,
1
22
=

= cos sin . (71)

Also, in the basis e
a
, D
e
i
e
j
=
k
ij
e
k
and the non null coecients are:

2
21
= cot ,
1
22
= cot . (72)
The torsion and the (Riemann) curvature tensors of D (recall Eq.(12) and
Eq.(13) are
T (
k
, e
i
, e
j
) =
k
((e
i
, e
j
)) =
k
_
D
e
j
e
i
D
e
i
e
j
[e
i
, e
j
]
_
, (73)
R(e
k
,
a
, e
i
, e
j
) =
a
__
D
e
i
D
e
j
D
e
j
D
e
i
D
[e
i
, e
j
]

e
k
_
, (74)
which results in T = 0 and that the non null components of R are R
1
1 21
=
R
1
1 12
= R
2
1 12
= R
2
1 12
= 1.
Since the Riemann curvature tensor is non null the parallel transport of a
given vector depends on the path to be followed. We say that a vector (say
v
0
) is parallel transported along a generic path R I (s) R
3
(say, from
A = (0) to B = (1)) with tangent vector

(s) (at (s)) if it determines a

vector eld V along satisfying
D

V = 0, (75)
and such that V((0)) = v
0
. When the path is a geodesic
35
of the connection
D, i.e.,a curve R I c(s) R
3
with tangent vector c

(s) (at c(s)) satisfying

D
c
c

= 0, (76)
the parallel transported vector along a c forms a constant angle with c

. Indeed,
from Eq.(75) it is

g
D

V = 0. Then taking into account Eq.(76) it follows

that
D

g
V) = 0.
18
Figure 1: Levi-Civita and Nunes transport of a vector v
0
satarting at p through
the paths psr and pqr. Levi-Civita tranport through psr leads to v
1
whereas
Nunes transport leads to v
2
. Along pqr both Levi-Civita and Nunes transport
agree and leads to v
2
.
i.e.,

g
V = constant.This is clearly illustrated in Figure 1 (from [1]).
Consider next the manifold

S
2
= S
2
north pole + south pole R
3
, which
is our sphere of radius R = 1 but this time excluding the north and south poles.
Let again g sec T
0
2

S
2
be the metric eld on

S
2
inherited from the ambient
space R
3
and introduce on

S
2
the Nunes (or navigator) connection
36
dened
by the following parallel transport rule: a vector at an arbitrary point of

S
2
is
parallel transported along a curve , if it determines a vector eld on such
that at any point of the angle between the transported vector and the vector
tangent to the latitude line passing through that point is constant during the
35
We recall that a geodesic of D also determines the minimal distance (as given by the
metric g) between any two points on S
2
.
36
Pedro Salacience Nunes (15021578) was one of the leading mathematicians and cosmo-
graphers of Portugal during the Age of Discoveries. He is well known for his studies in Cos-
mography, Spherical Geometry, Astronomic Navigation, and Algebra, and particularly known
for his discovery of loxodromic curves and the nonius. Loxodromic curves, also called rhumb
lines, are spirals that converge to the poles. They are lines that maintain a xed angle with the
meridians. In other words, loxodromic curves directly related to the construction of the Nunes
connection. A ship following a xed compass direction travels along a loxodromic, this being
the reason why Nunes connection is also known as navigator connection. Nunes discovered the
loxodromic lines and advocated the drawing of maps in which loxodromic spirals would appear
as straight lines. This led to the celebrated Mercator projection, constructed along these rec-
ommendations. Nunes invented also the Nonius scales which allow a more precise reading of
the height of stars on a quadrant. The device was used and perfected at the time by several peo-
ple, including Tycho Brahe, Jacob Kurtz, Christopher Clavius and further by Pierre Vernier
who in 1630 constructed a practical device for navigation. For some centuries, this device was
called nonius. During the 19
th
century, many countries, most notably France, started to call
it vernier. More details in http://www.mlahanas.de/Stamps/Data/Mathematician/N.htm.
19
transport. This is clearly illustrated in Figure 2. and to distinguish the Nunes
transport from the Levi-Civita transport we ask also for the reader to study
with attention the caption of Figure (1).
Figure 2: Characterization of the Nunes connection.
We recall that from the calculation of the Riemann tensor R it follows that
the structures (

S
2
, g, D,
g
) and also (S
2
, g, D,
g
) are Riemann spaces of con-
stant curvature. We now show that the structure (

S
2
, g, ,
g
) is a teleparallel
space
37
, with zero Riemamn curvature tensor, but non zero torsion tensor.
Indeed, from Figure 2 it is clear that (a) if a vector is transported along
the innitesimal quadrilateral pqrs composed of latitudes and longitudes, rst
starting from p along pqr and then starting from p along psr the parallel trans-
ported vectors that result in both cases will coincide (study also the caption of
Figure (1).
Now, the vector elds e
1
and e
2
in Eq.(68a) dene a basis for each point p
of T
p

S
2
and is clearly characterized by:

e
j
e
i
= 0. (77)
The components of curvature operator are:
37
As recalled in Section 1, a teleparallel manifold M is characterized by the existence of
global vector elds which is a basis for TxM for any x M. The reason for considering

S
2
for introducing the Nunes connection is that as well known (see, e.g., [8]) S
2
does not admit
a continuous vector eld that is nonnull at on points of it.
20

R(e
k
,
a
, e
i
, e
j
) =
a
__

e
i

e
j

e
j

e
i

[e
i
,e
j
]

e
k
_
= 0, (78)
and the torsion operation ( recall Eq.(10)) is:
(e
i
, e
j
) =
e
j
e
i

e
i
e
j
[e
i
, e
j
]
= [e
i
, e
j
], (79)
which gives for the components of the torsion tensor,

T
2
12
=

T
2
12
= cot . It
follows that

S
2
considered as part of the structure (

S
2
, g, ,
g
) is at (but has
torsion)!
If you still need more details to grasp this last result, consider Figure 2(b)
which shows the standard parametrization of the points p, q, r, s in terms of the
spherical coordinates introduced above. According to the geometrical meaning
of torsion, its value at a given point is determined by calculating the dierence
between the (innitesimal)
38
vectors pr
1
and pr
2
. If the vector pq is transported
along ps one get (recalling that R = 1) the vector v = sr
1
such that [g(v, v)[
1
2
=
sin . On the other hand, if the vector ps is transported along pq one get
the vector qr
2
= qr. Let w = sr. Then,
[g(w, w)[ = sin( ) sin cos , (80)
Also,
u = r
1
r
2
= u(
1
sin

), u = [g(u, u)[ = cos . (81)

Then, the connection of the structure (

S
2
, g, ,
g
) has a non null torsion
tensor

T . Indeed, the component of u = r
1
r
2
in the direction / is precisely

. So, one get (recalling that

j

i
=
k
ji

k
)

=
_

_
= cot . (82)
To end this Appendix it is worth to show that is metrical compatible, i.e.,
that g = 0. Indeed, we have:
0 =
ec
g(e
i
, e
j
) = (
ec
g)(e
i
, e
j
) + g(
ec
e
i
, e
j
) + g(e
i
,
ec
e
j
)
= (
ec
g)(e
i
, e
j
). (83)
Remark 9 This Appendix shows clearly that we cannot mislead the Riemann
curvature tensor of a connection with the fact that the manifold where that
connection is dened may be bend
39
as a surface in an Euclidean manifold
where it is embedded. Neglecting this fact may generate a lot of wishful thinking
when one comes to the interpretation of curvature (and torsion) in gravitational
theories.
38
This wording, of course, means that those vectors are identied as elements of the appro-
priate tangent spaces.
39
Bending of surfaces embedded in R
3
is adequately characterized by the so called shape
operator discussed, e.g., in[29]. For the case of hypersurfaces (vector manifolds) embedded
in R
n
see [22].
21
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