Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic Rocks, Rock cycle

1. Igneous Rocks or Primary Rocks

1. Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks)
2. Extrusive igneous rocks (Lava or Volcanic rocks)
3. Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks
4. Acidic Rocks
5. Basic Rocks
6. Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks
1. Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
2. Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
3. Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
4. Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
5. The spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India
6. Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
1. Causes of Metamorphism
2. Some examples of Metamorphosis
3. Metamorphic Rocks in India
4. Rock cycle
5. Some Rock-Forming Minerals
Igneous Rocks or Primary Rocks
• The solidification of magma formed the first rocks on earth.
• Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the surface) and lava (molten rock
above the surface) and are known as igneous or primary rocks.
• Having their origin under conditions of high temperatures the igneous rocks are unfossiliferous.
• Granite, gabbro, basalt, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
• There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time taken in cooling of the molten
matter, plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks and intermediate rocks.
• There are two types of rocks based on the presence of acid-forming radical, silicon, acidic
rocks and basic rocks.
Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks)
• If magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral grains formed in the rocks may be very large.
• Such rocks are called intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks (e.g. Granite).
• These rocks appear on the surface only after being uplifted and denuded.
Extrusive igneous rocks (Lava or Volcanic rocks)
• Sudden cooling of magma just below the surface or lava above the surface results in small and
smooth grains in rocks as rapid cooling prevents crystallisation, as a result, such rocks are fine-
grained.
• Such rocks are called extrusive rocks or volcanic rocks (e.g. Basalt).
• The Deccan traps in the Indian peninsular region is of basaltic origin.
• Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or magnesium, and
are thus denser and darker in colour.
Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks
 • These rocks occupy an intermediate position between the deep-seated plutonic bodies and the
surface lava flows.
• Dyke rocks are semi-crystalline in structure.

Acidic Rocks

• Acidic rocks are characterised by high content of silica (quartz and feldspar) — up to 80 per cent.
• The rest is divided among aluminium, alkalis, magnesium, iron oxide, lime etc.
• These rocks have a lesser content of heavier minerals like iron and magnesium. Hence, they are less
dense and are lighter in colour than basic rocks.
• These rocks constitute the sial portion of the crust.
• Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma cools fast, and it does not flow and spread far away.
• High mountains are formed of this type of rock.
• Add rocks are hard, compact, massive and resistant to weathering.
• Granite, quartz and feldspar are typical examples.
Basic Rocks

• These rocks are poor in silica (about 40 per cent); magnesia content is up to 40 per cent, and the
remaining is spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium, alkalis, potassium etc.
• Due to low silica content, the parent material of such rocks cools slowly and thus, flows and spreads
far away. This flow and cooling give rise to plateaus.
• Presence of heavy elements imparts to these rocks a dark colour. Not being very hard, these rocks
are weathered relatively easily.
• Basalt, gabbro and dolerite are typical examples.
Economic Significance of Igneous Rocks

• Since magma is the chief source of metal ores, many of them are associated with igneous rocks.
• The minerals of great economic value found in igneous rocks are magnetic iron, nickel, copper, lead,
zinc, chromite, manganese, gold, diamond and platinum.
• Amygdales are almond-shaped bubbles formed in basalt due to escape of gases and are filled with
minerals.
• The old rocks of the great Indian peninsula are rich in these crystallised minerals or metals.
• Many igneous rocks like granite are used as building materials as they come in beautiful shades.
Sedimentary Rocks or Detrital Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by lithification ― consolidation and compaction of sediments.
• Hence, they are layered or stratified of varying thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc.
• Sediments are a result of denudation (weathering and erosion) of all types of rocks.
 • These types of rocks cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent
(because they are available only in the upper part of the crust).
• Ice deposited sedimentary rocks are called till or tillite. Wind-deposited sediments are called loess.
Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are classified into:
1. mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess.
2. organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal.
3. chemically formed — limestone, halite, potash.
Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
• They are formed by mechanical agents like running water, wind, ocean currents, ice, etc.
• Arenaceous sedimentary rocks have more sand and bigger sized particles and are hard and porous.
They form the best reservoirs for liquids like groundwater and petroleum. E.g. sandstone.
• Argillaceous rocks have more clay and are fine-grained, softer, mostly impermeable (mostly non-
porous or have very tiny pores). E.g. claystone and shales are predominantly argillaceous.
Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
• Water containing minerals evaporate at the mouth of springs or salt lakes and give rise to Stalactites
and stalagmites (deposits of lime left over by the lime-mixed water as it evaporates in the
underground caves).

Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

• The remains of plants and animals are buried under sediments, and due to heat and pressure from
overlying layers, their composition changes. Coal and limestone are well-known examples.
• Depending on the predominance of calcium content or the carbon content, sedimentary rocks may
be calcareous (limestone, chalk, dolomite) or carbonaceous (coal).
Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

• They are stratified ― consist of many layers or strata.

• They hold the most informative geological records due to the marks left behind by various
geophysical (weather patterns, wind and water flow) and biological activities (fossils).
• They are fossiliferous ― have fossils of plants and animals.
• These rocks are generally porous and allow water to percolate through them.
The spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India
• Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic plain and coastal plains is of sedimentary accumulation. These
deposits contain loam and clay.
• Different varieties of sandstone are spread over Madhya Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, parts of
Himalayas, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
• The great Vindhyan highland in central India consists of sandstones, shales, limestones.
• Coal deposits occur in river basins of the Damodar, Mahanadi, the Godavari in the Gondwana
sedimentary deposits.
Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value as the igneous rocks.
• But important minerals such as hematite iron ore, phosphates, building stones, coals, petroleum and
material used in the cement industry are found.
 • The decay of tiny marine organisms yields petroleum. Petroleum occurs in suitable structures only.
• Important minerals like bauxite, manganese, tin, are derived from other rocks but are found in
gravels and sands carried by water.
• Sedimentary rocks also yield some of the richest soils.
Metamorphic Rocks
• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
• Metamorphism is a process by which recrystallisation and reorganisation of minerals occur within a
rock. This occurs due to pressure, volume and temperature changes.
• When rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten magma rising
through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks, metamorphosis occurs.
• In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines.
Such an arrangement is called foliation or lineation.
• Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers.
Such a structure in is called banding.
• Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.
Causes of Metamorphism
• Orogenic (Mountain Building) Movements: Such movements often take place with an interplay of
folding, warping and high temperatures. These processes give existing rocks a new appearance.
• Lava Inflow: The molten magmatic material inside the earth’s crust brings the surrounding rocks
under the influence of intense temperature pressure and causes changes in them.
• Geodynamic Forces: The omnipresent geodynamic forces such as plate tectonics also play an
important role in metamorphism.
On the basis of the agency of metamorphism, metamorphic rocks can be of two types
Thermal Metamorphism
• The change of form or re-crystallisation of minerals of sedimentary and igneous rocks under the
influence of high temperatures is known as thermal metamorphism.
• A magmatic intrusion causing thermal metamorphism is responsible for the peak of Mount
Everest consisting of metamorphosed limestone.
• As a result of thermal metamorphism, sandstone changes into quartzite and limestone into marble.
Dynamic Metamorphism
• This refers to the formation of metamorphic rocks under high pressure.
• Sometimes high pressure is accompanied by high temperatures and the action of chemically charged
water.
• The combination of directed pressure and heat is very powerful in producing metamorphism because
it leads to more or less complete recrystallisation of rocks and the production of new structures. This
is known as dynamo thermal metamorphism.
• Under high pressure, granite is converted into gneiss; clay and shale are transformed into schist.
Some examples of Metamorphosis
 Igneous or Sedimentary rock Influence Metamorphosed rock

Granite Pressure Gneiss

Clay, Shale Pressure Schist

Sandstone Heat Quartzite

Clay, Shale Heat Slate ==> Phyllite

Coal Heat Anthracite ==> Graphite

Limestone Heat Marble

Metamorphic Rocks in India

• The gneisses and schists are commonly found in the Himalayas, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
• Quartzite is a hard rock found over Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and areas
surrounding Delhi.
• Marble occurs near Alwar, Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur in Rajasthan and parts of Narmada Valley in Madhya
Pradesh.
• Slate, which is used as a roofing material and for writing in schools, is found over Rewari (Haryana),
Kangra (Himachal Pradesh) and parts of Bihar.
• Graphite is found in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
Rock cycle
• Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
• Igneous rocks are primary rocks, and other rocks form from these rocks.
• Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.
• The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks themselves can turn into metamorphic rocks.
• The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) may be carried down into
the mantle (interior of the earth) through subduction process and the same meltdown and turn into
molten magma, the source for igneous rocks
Some Rock-Forming Minerals
• Feldspar: Half the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour, and its main constituents are
silicon, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium. It is used for ceramics and gloss making.
• Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure. It is
uncleaved, white or colourless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and granite. It is used in the
manufacture of radio and radar.
• Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline and occurs in
small pellets.
• Cinnabar (mercury sulphide): Mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish colour.
• Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in cement and iron and steel
industries. It is white.
• Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertiliser and chemical industries.
• Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
• Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.
• Amphibole: It forms about 7 per cent of the earth’s crust and consists mainly of aluminium, calcium,
silica, iron, magnesium, etc. It is used in the asbestos industry.
• Mica: It consists of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica, etc., and forms 4 % of the earth’s
crust. It is generally found in igneous and metamorphic rocks and is mainly used in electrical
instruments.
• Olivine: The main elements of olivine are magnesium, iron and silica. It is normally a greenish crystal.
• Pyroxene: It consists of calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron and silica. It is of green or black colour.
• Other minerals like chlorite, calcite, magnetite, hematite, bauxite, barite, etc., are also present in
rocks.
 Fold & Fault in Geology, Fold Mountains and Block Mountains
Fold Mountains

• Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to
compressive forces.
• They are the loftiest mountains, and they are generally concentrated along continental margins.
Geosyncline: a large-scale depression in the earth’s crust containing very thick deposits. E.g. Tethys
geosyncline.
‘Fold’ in geology

• A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is
folded (deformed by bending) under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple
strata (rock layers).
• The folds that are upwardly convex are called as anticlines. The core (centre) of an anticline fold
consists of the older strata, and the strata are progressively younger outwards.
• In contrast, the folds that are downwardly convex are called synclines. The core of a syncline fold
consists of the younger strata, and the strata are progressively older outwards.

• Limbs: The limbs are the flanks of the fold.

• Hinge line: the where the flanks join together (the line of maximum curvature).
 • Axial plane: plane defined by connecting all the hinge lines of stacked folding surfaces (the plane in
which hinge lines of various strata lie).
Types of folds
• A symmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is vertical.
• An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined.
• An isoclinal fold has limbs that are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately parallel
to the axial plane.
• An overturned fold has a highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on one limb are overturned.
• A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.
Classification of fold mountains
On the basis of period of origin
• On the basis of the period of origin, fold mountains are divided into very old fold mountains, old fold
mountains and Alpine fold mountains.
Very Old Fold Mountains
• They are more than 500 million years old.
• They have rounded features (due to denudation).
• They are of low elevation.
• Some of the examples are Laurentian mountains, Algoman mountains, etc.

Old Fold Mountains

• Old fold mountains had their origin before the Tertiary period (tertiary period started 66 million years
ago).
• The fold mountain systems belonging to Caledonian and Hercynian mountain-building periods fall in
this category.
• The Appalachians in North America and the Ural Mountains in Russia are the examples.
• They are also called thickening relict fold mountains because of lightly rounded features and
medium elevation.
• Top layers are worn out due to erosional activity. Example: Aravalli Range in India.
• The Aravalli Range in India is the oldest fold mountain systems in India.
• The range rose in post-Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogeny.
Alpine or young fold mountains
• Alpine fold mountains belonging to the Tertiary period (66 million years ago to present) can be
grouped under the new fold mountains category since they originated in the Tertiary period.
• Examples are the Rockies, the Andes, the Alps, the Himalayas, etc.

Characteristics
• Rugged relief.
• Imposing height (lofty).
• High conical peaks.
On the basis of the nature of folds
Simple fold mountains
• Simple fold mountains with open folds in which well-developed systems of synclines and
anticlines are found, and folds are of wavy patterns.
Complex fold mountains
• Complex fold mountains in which the rock strata are intensely compressed to produce a complex
structure of folds.
• In the Himalayas, over folds and recumbent folds are often found detached from their roots and
carried a few hundred kilometres away by the tectonic forces. These detached folds are called
‘nappe.’
Characteristics of Fold Mountains
• Fold mountains belong to the group of youngest mountains of the earth.
• The presence of fossils suggests that the sedimentary rocks of these folded mountains were formed
after accumulation and consolidation of silts and sediments in a marine environment.
• Fold mountains extend for great lengths whereas their width is considerably small.
• Generally, fold mountains have a concave slope on one side and a convex slope on the other.
• Fold mountains are mostly found along continental margins facing oceans (C-O Convergence).
• Fold mountains are characterized by granite intrusions (formed when magma crystallises and
solidifies underground to form intrusions) on a massive scale.
• Recurrent seismicity is a common feature in folded mountain belts.
• High heat flow often finds expression in volcanic activity (Himalayas is an exception, because of C-C
convergence).
• These mountains are by far the most widespread and also the most important.
• They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin, copper, gold etc.
Block Mountains
• Block mountains are created because of faulting on a large scale (when large areas or blocks of earth
are broken and displaced vertically or horizontally).
• The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts, and the lowered blocks are called graben.
• The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley (graben) and the Vosges
mountain (horst) in Europe are examples.
• Block mountains are also called fault-block mountains since they are formed due to faulting as a
result of tensile and compressive forces.
There are two basic types of block mountains:
1. Tilted block mountains have one steep side contrasted by a gentle slope on the other side.
2. Lifted block mountains have a flat top and extremely steep slopes.

‘Fault’ in Geology
• When the earth’s crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place.
• A fault is a planar fracture (crack) in a volume of earth’s crust, across which there has been significant
displacement of a block/blocks of crust.
• The faulted edges are usually very steep, e.g. the Vosges and the Black Forest of the Rhineland.
• Faults occur due to tensile and compressive forces acting on the parts of the crust.

• Large faults within the Earth’s crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, such as subduction
zones or transform faults.
• Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
• In an active fault, the pieces of the Earth’s crust along a fault move over time.
• Inactive faults had movement along them at one time, but no longer move.
• The type of motion along a fault depends on the type of fault.
Types of faults
Types of faults (Actualist, from Wikimedia Commons)
Strike-slip fault
• In a strike-slip fault (also known transcurrent fault), the plane of the fault is usually near vertical, and
the blocks move laterally either left or right with very little vertical motion (the displacement of the
block is horizontal).
Transform fault
• A special class of strike-slip fault is the transform fault or transform boundary when it forms a plate
boundary.
• A transform fault is the only type of strike-slip fault that is classified as a plate boundary.
• Most of these faults are hidden in the deep ocean, where they offset divergent boundaries in short
zigzags resulting from seafloor spreading.
• They are less common within the continental lithosphere. The best example is the Dead Sea
transform fault.
• The transform boundary ends abruptly and is connected to another transform, a spreading ridge, or a
subduction zone.
Dip-slip faults
• Dip-slip faults can be either normal or reverse.
• In a normal fault, the hanging wall (displaced block of crust) moves downward, relative to the
footwall (stationary block). In a reverse fault (thrust fault) the hanging wall moves upwards.
• Reverse faults occur due to compressive forces whereas normal faults occur due to tensile forces.
• A downthrown block between two normal faults is a graben.
• An upthrown block between two normal faults is a horst.
• Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary.
• Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary.
Rift Valley system

• Tension causes the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault blocks forming a
graben or rift valley, which will have steep walls.
• The East African Rift Valley system is the best example.
• In general, large-scale block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression.
Block Mountains
• Block mountains may originate when the middle block moves downward and becomes a rift valley
while the surrounding blocks stand higher as block mountains.
Plateaus
• Sometimes, the surrounding blocks subside leaving the middle block stationary. Such cases are found
in high plateau regions.
Oblique-slip faults
• A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip
fault.
• Nearly all faults have some component of both dip-slip and strike-slip.
• Many disastrous earthquakes are caused along the oblique slip.