Chapter 2 DC Machinery Fundamentals

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Conceptualize commutator action

2. Enumerate the problems encountered with commutation
3. Discuss the emf and torque equations
4. Discuss the construction of DC machines
5. Determine the power flow of different DC machines

2.1 Introduction
A DC machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. When it converts
mechanical power (ωT) into DC electrical power (EI), it is known as a DC generator. On
the other hand, when it converts DC electrical power into mechanical power it is
known as a DC motor.
Although batteries are a significant source of DC electricity, they have a limited power
capacity. DC generators are employed in applications where a significant amount of
DC power is needed (such as in chemical and metal extraction facilities, for
electroplating and electrolysis operations, etc.). On the other hand, DC motors are
highly helpful in applications that demand a broad range of speeds and flawless speed
regulation, such as electric traction.
In short, we can say that DC machines have their own role in the field of engineering.

2.2 Working Principle of DC Machines

2.2.1 DC Generator
The basic principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction, that is, “When a
conductor cuts across a magnetic field, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in it.”

As one can see in the figure on the right,

when a conductor is moved vertically
upward or downward, the deflection in the
galvanometer clearly shows that an emf is
induced in the conductor since flux is cut by
the conductor. But, when it is moved
horizontally (left or right), there is no
deflection in the galvanometer which shows
that no emf is induced in the conductor
since flux cut is zero and conductor moves
just parallel to the magnetic lines of force.
Linear motion of conductor in a
In fact, in a generator, a coil is rotated at a uniform magnetic field
constant speed of ω radians per second in a
strong magnetic field of constant magnitude as shown in the figure below. An emf is
induced in the coil by the phenomenon of dynamically induced emf ( ;
∝ ). The magnitude and direction of induced emf changes periodically
depending upon sine of angle θ. The wave shape of the induced emf is shown in the
succeeding figure, which is AC for internal as well as external load.
 This AC is converted into DC with the help of commutator, as explained in the Articles
to follow.

Coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field Wave shape of induced emf

2.2.2 DC Motors
The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced by it. The
direction of this force is determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and its magnitude is
given by the relation:

For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field
produced by a bipolar machine [see first figure below]. When DC supply is connected
to the coil, current flows through it which sets up its own field as shown in the second
figure. By the interaction of the two fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and
the coil), a resultant field is set up as shown in the last figure. The tendency of this is
to come to its original position, that is, in straight line due to which force is exerted
on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.

Main field Field due to current carrying coil Resultant field

Alternately, it can be said that the main poles

produce a field Fm. Its direction is marked in figure
below. When current is supplied to the coil
(armature conductors), it produces its own field
marked as Fr. This field tries to come in line with
the main field and an electromagnetic torque
develops in clockwise direction as shown.

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 In actual machine, a large number of conductors are placed on the armature. All the
conductors, placed under the influence of one pole (say, North pole) carry the current
in one direction (outward). Whereas, the other conductors placed under the influence
of other pole i.e., south pole, carry the current in opposite direction as shown in the
figure below. A resultant rotor field is produced. Its direction is marked by the arrow-
head Fr. This rotor field Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm and torque (Te)
develops. Thus, rotor rotates.

Motor action

It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of current in
each conductor or coil side must be reversed when it passes through the magnetic
neutral axis (MNA). This is achieved with the help of a commutator.

2.3 Main Constructional Features of DC Machines

The complete assembly of various parts in a scattered form of a DC machine is shown
in the figure below. The essential parts of a DC machine are described below:

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 2.3.1 Magnetic Frame or Yoke
The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed is called yoke.
It also helps to fix the machine on the foundation. It serves two purposes:
1. It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
2. It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made
of cast steel or fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic
properties as compared to cast iron.

2.3.2 Pole Core or Pole Shoes

The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They
serve the following purposes:
1. They support the field or exciting coils.
2. They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more
uniformly.
3. Since pole shoes have larger cross-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is
reduced.

Field winding placed around pole core Field Winding

Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron
laminations which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure as shown in the
figure above.

2.3.3 Field Winding or Exciting Coils

Enamelled copper wire is used for the
construction of field or exciting coils. The
coils are wound on the former [see figure
above] and then placed around the pole
core as shown. When direct current is
passed through the field winding, it
magnetizes the poles which produce the
required flux. The field coils of all the poles
are connected in series in such a way that
when current flows through them, the
adjacent poles attain opposite polarity as
shown in the figure on the right.
Magnetic circuit of DC Machine

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 2.3.4 Armature Core
It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery slots
are cut, as shown in figure below, which accommodate the armature winding. The
armature core serves the following purposes:
1. It houses the conductors in the slots.
2. It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.

Since the armature is a spinning component of the machine, flux reversal occurs in
the core, resulting in hysteresis losses. Silicon steel is utilized to build it in order to
reduce these losses. It induces an emf and cuts the magnetic field when it rotates.
Eddy current loss occurs in this emf because it circulates eddy currents. Armature core
is laminated in order to limit these losses, which translates to the employment of
stampings that are between 0.3 and 0.5 mm thick. A varnish layer separates each
lamination or stamping from the others (see figure below).

Armature Core

2.3.5 Armature Winding

The insulated conductors that are contained in the armature slots that are properly
connected are called armature windings. A DC machine's heart is the armature
winding. It is a location where one type of power is transformed into another; for
example, in a generator, mechanical power is transformed into electrical power, and
in a motor, electrical power is transformed into mechanical power. There are two
different armature winding kinds based on connections: (i) lap winding and (ii) wave
winding (detailed discussions in the coming articles).
1. Lap winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the number of
parallel paths is equal to number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z
armature conductors, then there will be P parallel, paths, each path will have
Z/P conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to the
number parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and the
remaining (half) are negative.
2. Wave winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the numbers of
parallel paths are only two irrespective of the number of poles. Thus, if
machine has Z armature conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each
having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to
two i.e., number of parallel paths.

2.3.6 Commutator
It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes:

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 1. It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit
through brushes.
2. It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in generator action, whereas,
it converts the alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque
produced in the armature in motor action.

The wedge-shaped, hard drawn copper segments that make up the commutator are
formed like cylinders. A thin mica film insulates the pieces from one another. Two V-
shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves carved into the segments serve as the means
of holding the segments together. Through a riser, each armature coil is linked to a
commutator section. The image below depicts the commutator assembly in section.

Commutator

2.3.7 Brushes
The armature winding and the external circuit are connected via the brushes, which
are pushed against the commutator. They are often composed of high-grade carbon
since it is a conductor and also has a lubricating effect on the commutator surface
when it is in powder form. By means of brush holders and a rocker, the brushes are
fixed in a certain location around the commutator.

2.3.8 Brush Rocker

It keeps the brush holders' spindles in place. With the use of nuts and bolts, it is
attached to the machine's fixed frame. The brushes above the commutator may be
moved around to reduce sparking at the brushes by adjusting their location.

2.3.9 End Housing

The ends of the main frame and the support bearings are connected by end housings.
The bearing and brush assemblies are supported by the front housing, whereas the
bearing is often the only component supported by the rear housing.

2.3.10 Bearings
The end housings are supplied with bearings, which can be either ball or roller
bearings. Their purpose is to decrease friction between the machine's spinning and
stationary components. Due to its exceptional hardness, high carbon steel is typically
employed in the manufacturing of bearings.

2.3.11 Shaft
Mild steel with a maximum breaking strength makes up the shaft. The shaft is used to
supply or receive mechanical energy to the machine. The spinning components, such
as the commutator, cooling fan, and armature core, are coupled to the shaft.

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2.4 Simple Loop Generator and Function of Commutator
For simplicity, consider only one coil AB placed in the strong magnetic field. The two
ends of the coil are joined to slip rings A’ and B’ respectively. Two brushes rest on
these slip rings as shown below.

Load connected through slip rings

When this coil is rotated in counter clockwise direction at an angular velocity of ω

radius per second, the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and an emf is induced in it. The
position of the coil at various instants is shown above and the corresponding value of
the induced emf and its direction is shown in the figure below The induced emf is
alternating and the current flowing through the external resistance is also alternating
i.e., at second instant current flows in external resistance from M to L, whereas, at
fourth instant it flows from L to M as shown.

Wave Diagram

2.4.1 Commutator Action

Consider that the two ends of the coil are connected to only one slip ring split into
two parts (segment) i.e., As and Bs . Each part is insulated from the other by a mica
layer. Two brushes rest on these parts of the ring as shown below

In this case when the coil is rotated is counter clockwise direction at an angular
velocity of ω radians per second, the magnetic flux is cut by the coil and an emf is

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 induced in it. The magnitude of emf induced in the coil at various instants will remain
the same as with a separate slip rings.

However, the flow of current in the external resistor or circuit will become
unidirectional i.e., at second instant the flow of current in the external resistor is from
M to L as well as the flow of current in the external resistor is from M to L in the fourth
instant, as shown.above. Its wave shape is shown below

Wave Diagram using commutator

Hence, an alternating current is converted into unidirectional current in the external

circuit with the help of a commutator.

In an actual machine, there are number of coils connected to the number of segments
of the ring called commutator. The emf or current delivered by these coils to the
external load is shown below. The actual flow of current flowing in the external load
is shown by the firm line which fluctuates slightly. The number of coils placed on the
armature is even much more than this and a pure direct current is obtained at the
output as shown in the succeeding figure

Wave shape of output delivered by multiple coils

True wave shape output delivered

Thus, in actual machine working as a generator, the function of commutator is to

convert the alternating current produced in the armature into direct current in the
external circuit.

Also, the function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction of flow of

current in each armature conductor when it passes through the M.N.A. to obtain
continuous torque.

2.5 Connections of Armature Coils

2.4.1 with Commutator Segments
Consider an armature which has four coils 1, 2, 3 and 4 equally spaced in the armature
slots as shown in the figure below. The number of commutator segments is equal to
number of coils. When the armature is rotated clockwise, the direction of induced
emf together with the current in coil sides 3’, 1, 4’ , 2 is downward and in coil sides 1’,
3, 2’ , 4 is upward. The coils should be connected in such a way that the emf induced
in the two sides of the same coil be added up as shown in the second figure below.

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 The coil sides 1–4’ , 1’ –2, 2’ –3 and 3’ –4 are connected to the commutator segments
namely 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in third figure.

Coils and commutator segments Electrical connection

Developed windings diagram for 2-pole, 4 coil, 4-segment DC machine

2.4.1 Location of Brushes
The brushes are to collect or deliver the current and arc placed at such a position that
sparking is minimum at the brushes. The rules to be followed for determining the
position of brushes are given below:
1. Place the brush at each meeting point or each separating point of two emf’s.
The brushes at the meeting point are of positive polarity and those at the
separating point are of negative polarity. At segment 1, current is separated
towards conductor 1 and 4’, hence it is a separating point. Whereas, current is
coming towards segment 3 from conductor 2’ and 3, hence it is a meeting
point. So, the commutator segment 1 is the position of negative brush and
commutator segment 3 of the positive brush.
2. Brushes are generally equally spaced and placed directly opposite to the pole
centers. This brings out a very important point, namely, that in certain
positions of the commutator the brushes will be actually short circuiting the
coils connected to the segments with which they are in contact (see first figure
below). In this case only two coils are short circuited, which is taking place

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 continuously and as such the width of brushes must be greater than the
thickness of the mica insulation between segments. However, for
representation, the general convention is to place the brushes at geometrical
neutral plane (G.N.P.). All conductors above the brush axis carry current in one
direction and all conductors below the brush axis carry current in the opposite
direction. This convention represents that the brushes are placed at the coil or
coils in which the voltage induced is zero.

The actual position of the brushes is shown in the following figures. These figures also
show the position of coil sides and the direction of currents after the coils 2 and 4
undergo commutation. The negative brush short circuits the segments 1 and 4
whereas positive brush short circuit the segments 2 and 3. The coils 4 and 2 are short
circuited by the brushes and hence no emf should induce in these coils. The armature
winding forms a closed circuit and consists of two parallel paths. When a coil under
goes commutation no emf is induced in it since it passes through magnetic neutral
axis (MNA), and the coil is short-circuited by the brushes, hence no sparking will take
place.

Brush position Brush position and electrical connection

Brush position at an instant

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