‭VIVEKANANDA GLOBAL UNIVERSITY‬

‭LECTURE NOTES‬
‭Unit II‬
‭ Basics, Operators, Loops‬
C
‭(6L)‬

‭CONTENT:‬
‭ .‬‭Introduction to C‬
1
‭2.‬‭features of C‬
‭3.‬‭basic C program structure‬
‭4.‬‭C tokens‬
‭5.‬‭data types‬
‭6.‬‭C Operators and precedence‬
‭7.‬‭Type conversion‬
‭8.‬‭Control Structures‬
‭a.‬‭If‬
‭b.‬‭If-else‬
‭c.‬ ‭nested if‬
‭d.‬‭switch- case‬
‭e.‬ ‭While‬
‭f.‬ ‭Do-while‬
‭g.‬‭for statements‬
‭9.‬‭Unconditional control statements‬
‭a.‬‭Break‬
‭b.‬‭Continue‬

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‭What is C?‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭C is a general-purpose, procedural programming language created in‬

‭the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs.‬
‭●‬ ‭It is known for its efficiency, simplicity, and low-level features,‬
‭making it widely used for developing system software and‬
‭applications.‬

‭B. Characteristics:‬

‭Mid-Level Language:‬
‭●‬ ‭C combines low-level features for direct hardware‬
‭manipulation with high-level constructs for programming ease.‬
‭Procedural Language:‬
‭●‬ ‭C follows a procedural programming paradigm, organizing‬
‭code into functions or procedures.‬
‭Portable:‬
‭●‬ ‭Code written in C is highly portable, meaning it can run on‬
‭different platforms with minimal modification.‬
‭Efficient:‬
‭●‬ ‭C provides direct access to memory and system resources,‬
‭making it efficient for system-level programming.‬

‭Features of C Programming Language‬

‭I. Overview:‬

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‭ is a versatile and widely-used programming language that has stood the‬
C
‭test of time. Understanding its key features is crucial for effective‬
‭programming and software development.‬

‭II. Key Features:‬

‭A. Simplicity:‬

‭●‬ ‭C is designed with simplicity in mind, providing a minimalistic set of‬

‭keywords and a straightforward syntax.‬
‭●‬ ‭It allows for low-level programming while maintaining a high-level‬
‭structure.‬

‭B. Portability:‬

‭●‬ ‭C programs are highly portable, meaning they can be easily adapted‬
‭to run on different platforms with minimal modifications.‬
‭●‬ ‭This portability is due to the use of standard libraries and‬
‭well-defined specifications.‬

‭C. Efficiency:‬

‭●‬ ‭C allows for direct manipulation of hardware through pointers,‬

‭making it efficient for system-level programming.‬
‭●‬ ‭It provides low-level features like bit manipulation and direct‬
‭memory access.‬

‭D. Modularity:‬

‭●‬ ‭C supports modularity through functions and libraries, allowing‬

‭developers to break down large programs into smaller, manageable‬
‭parts.‬

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‭●‬ ‭This modular approach enhances code readability, reusability, and‬
‭maintainability.‬

‭E. Extensibility:‬

‭●‬ ‭C is extensible, enabling developers to add new features and‬

‭capabilities through the creation of user-defined functions and‬
‭libraries.‬
‭●‬ ‭This feature encourages the growth of the language based on specific‬
‭project requirements.‬

‭F. Powerful Standard Library:‬

‭●‬ ‭C comes with a powerful standard library that provides a rich set of‬
‭functions for input/output, string manipulation, memory allocation,‬
‭and more.‬
‭●‬ ‭This library simplifies common programming tasks and promotes‬
‭code efficiency.‬

‭G. Static Typing:‬

‭●‬ ‭C is statically typed, meaning variable types need to be declared‬

‭before compilation.‬
‭●‬ ‭This approach catches type-related errors during the compilation‬
‭phase, enhancing program reliability.‬

‭H. Recursion:‬

‭ ‬ ‭C supports recursion, allowing functions to call themselves.‬

●
‭●‬ ‭This feature facilitates elegant solutions to certain problems and‬
‭promotes efficient use of memory.‬

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‭I. Pointers:‬

‭●‬ ‭Pointers in C enable direct memory manipulation, enhancing the‬

‭ability to work with addresses and optimize memory usage.‬
‭●‬ ‭While powerful, the use of pointers requires careful handling to‬
‭avoid memory-related errors.‬

‭J. Low-level Manipulation:‬

‭●‬ ‭C allows low-level manipulation of bits and bytes, making it suitable‬

‭for tasks such as device driver development and embedded systems‬
‭programming.‬
‭●‬ ‭This capability grants fine-grained control over the hardware.‬

‭Basic Structure of a C Program‬

‭I. Introduction:‬

‭ efore diving into writing C programs, it's crucial to understand the basic‬
B
‭structure that every C program follows. This structure ensures that the‬
‭compiler can understand and execute the code correctly.‬

‭II. Components of a C Program:‬

‭A. Header Files:‬

‭●‬ ‭Begin your program by including necessary header files. These files‬
‭provide essential information to the compiler about functions used in‬
‭the program.‬

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‭#include <stdio.h> // Standard Input/Output functions‬

‭B. main() Function:‬

‭●‬ ‭Every C program starts execution from the main() function. It serves as the‬
‭entry point for the program.‬

i‭nt main() {‬
‭// Program logic goes here‬
‭return 0; // Indicates successful execution‬
‭}‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭int‬‭before‬‭main()‬‭indicates that the function returns an‬

i‭nteger value.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭return 0;‬‭statement signifies that the program executed‬
‭successfully. A non-zero value typically indicates an error.‬

‭C. Comments:‬

‭●‬ ‭Use comments to document your code. They don't affect the program‬
‭but provide information to programmers.‬

‭// This is a single-line comment‬

‭/*‬

‭This is a multi-line‬

‭comment‬

‭*/‬

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‭D. Statements and Expressions:‬

‭●‬ ‭Write statements to perform specific actions. Statements are typically‬

‭terminated with a semicolon.‬

‭printf("Hello, World!"); // Print a message to the console‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭printf‬‭function is part of the standard input/output library.‬

‭III. Complete Example:‬

‭#include <stdio.h>‬

‭int main() {‬

‭// Program logic‬

‭printf("Hello, World!"); // Display a message‬

‭return 0; // Indicates successful execution‬

‭}‬

‭IV. Explanation:‬

‭●‬ ‭The program includes the necessary header file (‬‭#include <stdio.h>‬‭)‬
f‭ or standard input/output functions.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭main()‬‭function serves as the entry point.‬
‭●‬ ‭Inside‬‭main()‬‭, the‬‭printf‬‭function is used to display "Hello, World!" on‬
‭the console.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭return 0;‬‭statement signals successful program execution.‬

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‭I. C Tokens:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭In C programming, a token is the smallest unit of a program that‬

‭carries a specific meaning to the compiler. Tokens are the building‬
‭blocks of a C program.‬

‭B. Types of C Tokens:‬

‭Keywords:‬
‭●‬ ‭Reserved words that have a predefined meaning in the C‬
‭language. Examples include‬‭int‬‭,‬‭if‬‭,‬‭else‬‭,‬‭while‬‭, and‬‭return‬‭.‬
‭Identifiers:‬
‭●‬ ‭Names given to entities such as variables, functions, and arrays‬
‭created by the programmer. Must follow certain rules, e.g., no‬
‭spaces or special characters except underscore.‬
‭Constants:‬
‭●‬ ‭Fixed values that do not change during the program's‬
‭execution.‬
‭●‬ ‭Numeric Constants: e.g.,‬‭25‬‭,‬‭3.14‬
‭●‬ ‭Character Constants: e.g.,‬‭'A'‬‭,‬‭'7'‬
‭●‬ ‭String Constants: e.g.,‬‭"Hello, World!"‬
‭String Literals:‬
‭●‬ ‭Sequences of characters enclosed in double quotes,‬
‭representing string constants.‬
‭printf("This is a string literal");‬

‭Operators:‬
‭●‬ ‭Symbols that perform operations on variables and values.‬
‭Examples include‬‭+‬‭,‬‭-‬‭,‬‭*‬‭,‬‭/‬‭,‬‭%‬‭,‬‭==‬‭,‬‭!=‬‭.‬
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‭Punctuation Symbols:‬
‭●‬ ‭Symbols used to separate statements or indicate program‬
‭structure. Examples include‬‭;‬‭(semicolon),‬‭,‬‭(comma),‬‭()‬
‭(parentheses),‬‭{}‬‭(curly braces).‬
‭Comments:‬
‭●‬ ‭Used to provide explanations or notes within the code.‬
‭Comments are ignored by the compiler.‬

‭// This is a single-line comment‬

‭/*‬

‭This is a‬

‭multi-line comment‬

‭*/‬

‭II. Data Types in C:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭Data types define the type of data a variable can hold. C supports‬
‭various data types to accommodate different kinds of values.‬

‭B. Basic Data Types:‬

‭int:‬
‭●‬ ‭Integer data type, used to store whole numbers.‬

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‭●‬ ‭Example:‬‭int age = 25;‬
‭float:‬
‭●‬ ‭Floating-point data type, used to store decimal numbers.‬
‭●‬ ‭Example:‬‭float price = 3.99;‬
‭double:‬
‭●‬ ‭Double-precision floating-point data type, provides more‬
‭precision than‬‭float‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Example:‬‭double pi = 3.14159265359;‬
‭char:‬
‭●‬ ‭Character data type, used to store single characters.‬
‭●‬ ‭Example:‬‭char grade = 'A';‬

‭I. C Operators:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭Operators in C are symbols that perform operations on variables and‬

‭values. They help manipulate data and perform computations.‬

‭B. Types of Operators:‬

‭Arithmetic Operators:‬
‭●‬ ‭Perform basic mathematical operations.‬

‭int a = 10, b = 5;‬

‭int sum = a + b; // Addition‬

‭int diff = a - b; // Subtraction‬

‭int product = a * b; // Multiplication‬

‭int quotient = a / b; // Division‬

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‭int remainder = a % b; // Modulus (remainder)‬

‭Relational Operators:‬
‭●‬ ‭Compare two values and return a true or false result.‬

‭int x = 8, y = 12;‬

‭printf("%d\n", x > y); // Greater than‬

‭printf("%d\n", x < y); // Less than‬

‭printf("%d\n", x == y); // Equal to‬

‭printf("%d\n", x != y); // Not equal to‬

‭Logical Operators:‬
‭●‬ ‭Combine relational expressions and return a true or false result.‬

‭int p = 1, q = 0;‬

‭printf("%d\n", p && q); // Logical AND‬

‭printf("%d\n", p || q); // Logical OR‬

‭printf("%d\n", !p); // Logical NOT‬

‭Assignment Operators:‬
‭●‬ ‭Assign values to variables and perform operations in a single‬
‭step.‬

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‭int num = 5;‬

‭num += 3; // Equivalent to num = num + 3;‬

‭Increment and Decrement Operators:‬

‭●‬ ‭Increase or decrease the value of a variable by 1.‬

‭int count = 10;‬

‭count++; // Increment by 1‬

‭count--; // Decrement by 1‬

‭II. Operator Precedence:‬

‭●‬ ‭Operator precedence determines the order in which operators are‬

‭evaluated in an expression.‬

‭A. Example:‬

‭int result = 5 + 3 * 2;‬

‭●‬ ‭Here, multiplication has higher precedence than addition. So,‬‭3 * 2‬‭is‬
‭evaluated first, and then the result is added to‬‭5‭.‬‬

‭B. Precedence Levels:‬

‭●‬ ‭Operators with higher precedence are evaluated first.‬

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‭●‬ ‭Parentheses can be used to change the default precedence.‬

‭Precedence Orders‬

‭1. Parentheses ()‬

‭2. Unary Operators +, -, ++, --‬

‭3. Multiplicative Operators *, /, %‬

‭4. Additive Operators +, -‬

‭5. Relational Operators <, >, <=, >=‬

‭6. Equality Operators ==, !=‬

‭7. Logical AND &&‬

‭8. Logical OR ||‬

‭9. Assignment Operators =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=‬

‭III. Type Conversion:‬

‭A. Implicit Type Conversion (Automatic):‬

‭●‬ ‭The compiler automatically converts data from one type to another.‬

‭int integerNumber = 10;‬

‭float floatNumber = integerNumber; // Implicit conversion from int to float‬

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‭B. Explicit Type Conversion (Casting):‬

‭●‬ ‭The programmer explicitly specifies the type conversion.‬

‭float pi = 3.14159;‬

‭int approxPi = (int)pi; // Explicitly convert float to int‬

‭C. Type Casting Functions:‬

‭●‬ ‭int()‬‭,‬‭float()‬‭,‬‭char()‬‭, etc., can be used for type casting.‬

‭float price = 45.99;‬

‭int approxPrice = (int)price; // Explicit casting‬

‭Control Structure Statements in C‬

‭I.‬‭if‬‭Statement:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭if‬‭statement is used for conditional execution. It evaluates a‬

‭condition and executes a block of code if the condition is true.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭if (condition) {‬

‭// Code to execute if condition is true‬

‭}‬

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‭II.‬‭if-else‬‭Statement:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭if-else‬‭statement extends the‬‭if‬‭statement by providing an‬

‭alternative block of code to execute when the condition is false.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭if (condition) {‬

‭// Code to execute if condition is true‬

‭} else {‬

‭// Code to execute if condition is false‬

‭}‬

‭III. Nested‬‭if‬‭Statement:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭Nested‬‭if‬‭statements are‬‭if‬‭statements inside other‬‭if‬‭or‬‭else‬‭blocks.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭if (condition1) {‬

‭// Code to execute if condition1 is true‬

‭if (condition2) {‬

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‭// Code to execute if both condition1 and condition2 are true‬

‭}‬

‭}‬

‭IV.‬‭switch-case‬‭Statement:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭switch-case‬‭statement provides a way to handle multiple‬

‭conditions based on the value of an expression.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭switch (expression) {‬

‭case value1:‬

‭// Code to execute if expression equals value1‬

‭break;‬

‭case value2:‬

‭// Code to execute if expression equals value2‬

‭break;‬

‭// ... other cases ...‬

‭default:‬

‭// Code to execute if expression doesn't match any case‬

‭}‬

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‭V.‬‭while‬‭Loop:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭while‬‭loop executes a block of code repeatedly as long as a‬

‭specified condition is true.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭while (condition) {‬

‭// Code to execute while the condition is true‬

‭}‬

‭VI.‬‭do-while‬‭Loop:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭do-while‬‭loop is similar to the‬‭while‬‭loop but guarantees the‬

e‭ xecution of the block of code at least once, as the condition is‬
‭checked after the loop body.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭do {‬

‭// Code to execute at least once‬

‭} while (condition);‬

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‭VII.‬‭for‬‭Loop:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭for‬‭loop provides a concise way to write loops by combining the‬

‭initialization, condition, and increment/decrement steps.‬

‭B. Syntax:‬

‭for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement)‬

‭for (i=1;i<=10;i++) {‬

‭// Code to execute as long as the condition is true‬

‭}‬

‭Unconditional Control Statements in C - break and continue‬

‭I. break Statement:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he break statement is used to terminate the execution of the innermost loop‬
‭or switch-case statement.‬

‭B. Usage:‬

‭for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {‬

‭if (i == 5) {‬

‭break; // Exit the loop when i reaches 5‬

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‭}‬

‭// Code inside the loop‬

‭}‬

‭C. Use Cases:‬

‭‬ B
● ‭ reaking out of a loop prematurely based on a certain condition.‬
‭●‬ ‭Terminating the execution of a switch-case block.‬

‭II. continue Statement:‬

‭A. Definition:‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he continue statement is used to skip the rest of the code inside the loop for‬
‭the current iteration and move to the next iteration.‬

‭B. Usage:‬

‭for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {‬

‭if (i == 5) {‬

‭continue; // Skip the rest of the loop for i=5‬

‭}‬

‭// Code inside the loop‬

‭}‬

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‭C. Use Cases:‬

‭‬ S
● ‭ kipping certain iterations of a loop based on a specific condition.‬
‭●‬ ‭Avoiding the execution of remaining code for a particular case within a loop.‬

‭III. break vs. continue:‬

‭ ‬ b‭ reak is used to exit the loop entirely.‬

●
‭●‬ ‭continue is used to skip the remaining code inside the loop for the current‬
‭iteration and move to the next iteration.‬

‭IV. Example:‬

‭#include <stdio.h>‬

‭int main() {‬

‭for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {‬

‭if (i == 3) {‬

‭continue; // Skip the rest of the loop for i=3‬

‭}‬

‭if (i == 7) {‬

‭break; // Exit the loop when i reaches 7‬

‭}‬

‭printf("%d ", i);‬

‭}‬

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‭return 0;‬

‭}‬

‭* * * * * * * * * * * * * Thank You * * * * * * * * * * * * *‬

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