TOPNOTCH CHEM BOOK 2 by Cyclone
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TOP NOTCH CHEMISTRY
Paragon of excellence
Students’ Form two Notebook
FIFTH EDITION
© THADDEUS M. MBALUKA 2021
ALLIANCE HIGH SCHOOL
This book belongs to:
Name ……………………………….ADM………
School……………………Class………………….
“The chemists are a strange class of mortals, impelled by an almost insane impulse to seek their
pleasures amid smoke and vapour, soot and flame, poisons and poverty; yet among all these evils I
seem to live so sweetly that may I die if I were to change places with the Persian king.”
Anonymous
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 1
PUBLISHED BY
TOPNOTCH EDUCREATIONS
P. O. Box 9373-00200
NAIROBI Kenya.
+254728951320
+254763951320
© Thaddeus M. Mbaluka
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the
publisher.
First published 2017
ISBN: 978-9966-099-87-7
Design and Layout by Thaddeus M. Mbaluka
Cover design by Anderson Mbaga & Thaddeus M. Mbaluka
PRINTED BY
MWANAABAKARI PRINTING PRESS, NAIROBI
0728-951320/0763951320
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 2
Forward
One of the major objectives of the 8-4-4 system of education is the acquisition of relevant skills, knowledge and
attitudes that will enable the learner to face the challenges of higher education and to be self-reliant after
completion of school. This need has necessitated the writing of this hand book.
This handbook has especially captured the needs of students as it has integrated revision exercises after every
sub topic hence making it student centered. The authors’ alignment of notes cum revision exercises has
accommodated the needs of learners hence reaching all students.
This book has meticulously designed and customized to meet the needs of the student. After going through it I
can authoritatively confirm it contains well researched notes after thorough brain work and active-thought
process. The author has really studied his niche, seen the gaps, and came up with an excellent product which
bridge the gaps in chemistry and demystify the subject. The author has also pointed out some common errors
where students lose marks during marking.
Lastly the heart of chemistry as a subject is in form two, and this book will ensure the student comprehends the
concept through exposure to many practice questions in this book. The book is also very useful for teachers
who wish to expose students to exam type of questions; I highly recommend it for students and teachers.
ALEX BOSIRE MOMANYI
HEAD OF CHEMISTRY
ALLIANCE HIGH SCHOOL
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This book would not have been written without the support of some individuals who gave me the insights,
guidance and assisted me in articulating my ideas and blending them to come up with this piece of work. First,
I thank the Almighty God for the many blessings, secondly I thank my wife Christine Mbaika Makau who worked
tirelessly with me and typed most of the work and drew the diagrams in this book, I would also like to thank the
entire fraternity of Alliance high school and all the students for their input in asking questions and encouraging
me in compiling this book.
Special thank you to my friend Richard Awino of St Teresa for your irreplaceable support and inspiration in
writing this book. Mr Anderson Mbaga who helped in designing the cover of this book. Special gratitude goes
to my friend John Watuka, the chief editor of this book from A.I.C Matetani who worked with me in editing book
and for his input. A big thank you To Nicholas Mbeva and Madam Rosemary Musyoki for proof reading this book
and making the necessary corrections. Madam Mutheu Masave Bura Girls’ for your selfless input in reading
through the book and making necessary corrections. My students : Sarah Mbithe ,Jackline Mutende ,Benson
Ndambuki ,Richard musyoka and Patrick Musyoki who helped me in reading through the book and making
necessary corrections. Special thank you chief editor DENNIS WEKESA NAKITARE (alliance high school) for
guiding our team of editors and to Madam Rose M. Kongo , st mary’s Ngongoni for your irreplaceable guidance
on examination techniques in compiling this book.
Lastly I appreciate the support I have got from teachers who have given me a lot of encouragement and
appreciated my work Judith wambua ,Kyeni girls ,Sammuel Chege Tala Girls, loise Wangui (Othaya girls) ,John
Kamuru and Alex Momanyi of Alliance boys,Stanley Ihinga (ndiani girls secondary) Justus Nzyuko (Kunikila) I
appreciate you all.
THADDAEUS MAKAU MBALUKA 0728951320 /0763951320
ALLIANCE HIGH SCHOOL
©2018
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FORWARD ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
TOPIC 1: PERIODIC, TABLES, ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND CHEMICAL FAMILIES ......................................................................................... 7
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
ATOMIC STRUCTURE..................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
ISOTOPY, ISOTOPES AND CALCULATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (R.A.M.).....................................................................................10
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (R.A.M) ...............................................................................................................................................................10
ENERGY LEVEL AND ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT .......................................................................................................................................13
PERIODIC TABLE .........................................................................................................................................................................................14
ION FORMATION ..........................................................................................................................................................................................16
VALENCY ......................................................................................................................................................................................................18
WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE ................................................................................................................................................................19
REVISION QUESTIONS ON ATOMIC STRUCTURE PERIODIC TABLE ...........................................................................................................41
CHAPTER TWO: CHEMICAL FAMILIES .........................................................................................................................................................55
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 55
ALKALI METALS ............................................................................................................................................................................................55
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................................................................................55
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ...............................................................................................................................................................................56
USES OF ALKALI METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS ..................................................................................................................................58
ALKALINE EARTH METAL .............................................................................................................................................................................58
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP ..............................................................................................................................................................59
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALINE EARTH METALS ..............................................................................................................................59
USES OF ALKALINE EARTH METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS .................................................................................................................60
HALOGENS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................61
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS .......................................................................................................................................................61
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CHLORINE GAS .......................................................................................................................................62
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS ......................................................................................................................................................62
USES OF HALOGENS ....................................................................................................................................................................................65
NOBLE GASES ..............................................................................................................................................................................................65
TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES ................................................................................................................................65
TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES...............................................................................................................................66
USES OF NOBLE GASES................................................................................................................................................................................66
REVISION QUESTIONS CHEMICAL FAMILIES ..............................................................................................................................................67
CHAPTER THREE: STRUCTURE AND BONDING .........................................................................................................................................82
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 82
TYPES BONDS AND RELATED STRUCTURE ...............................................................................................................................................82
IONIC BONDING AND GIANT IONIC STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................................82
COVALENT BOND ........................................................................................................................................................................................86
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MOLECULAR STRUCTURES AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION ....................................................................................88
GIANT COVALENT/ GIANT ATOMIC STRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................................89
DATIVE/CO-ORDINATE BOND......................................................................................................................................................................92
METALLIC BONDING....................................................................................................................................................................................94
REVISION QUESTIONS ON STRUCTURE AND BONDING ............................................................................................................................97
CHAPTER FOUR: TRENDS IN PROPERTIES ACROSS PERIOD THREE .........................................................................................................108
TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES............................................................................................................................................................108
TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ..........................................................................................................................................................110
TRENDS IN STRUCTURE AND BONDING OF COMPOUNDS OF PERIOD THREE ELEMENTS ....................................................................112
SUMMARY OF TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS DOWN AND ACROSS PERIODIC TABLE .............................................................113
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 145
SOLUBILITY OF SALTS ................................................................................................................................................................................145
METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS ..............................................................................................................................................................146
1. PREPARATION OF ZINC SULPHATE .......................................................................................................................................................146
2. PREPARATION OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE ............................................................................................................................................146
PREPARATION OF CALCIUM CHLORIDE ....................................................................................................................................................148
PREPARATION OF SALTS BY DIRECT SYNTHESIS.......................................................................................................................................148
PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS ........................................................................................................................................................148
NOTES ON PREPARATION OF DOUBLE SALTS .........................................................................................................................................149
SPECIAL ANALYSIS OF SALTS .....................................................................................................................................................................152
CHAPTER SIX: EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT OMN SUBSTANCES ........................................................................................................161
DEFINITIONS ..............................................................................................................................................................................................161
ELECTROLYSIS OF BINARY COMPOUNDS .................................................................................................................................................162
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN LEAD (II) CHLORIDE ......................................................................................................................................162
REVISION QUESTIONS ON EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON SUBSTANCES ...................................................................................163
CHAPTER SEVEN: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS ...............................................................................................................................167
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 167
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON .........................................................................................................................................................................167
OTHER FORMS OF CARBON AND THEIR USES..........................................................................................................................................168
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON ........................................................................................................................................................168
OXIDES OF CARBON ..................................................................................................................................................................................169
CARBON (IV) OXIDE ...................................................................................................................................................................................169
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE .......................................................................................................................................170
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE ......................................................................................................................................170
USES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE ....................................................................................................................................................................171
PROPERTIES OF CARBON (II) OXIDE..........................................................................................................................................................174
LARGE SCALE MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM CARBONATES (NA2CO3)(SODA ASH) ................................................................................175
SOLVAY PROCESS ......................................................................................................................................................................................176
POLLUTION EFFECT BY CARBON AND CARBON COMPOUNDS ...............................................................................................................178
REVISION QUESTION ON CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS .....................................................................................................................179
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TOPIC 1: PERIODIC, TABLES, ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND CHEMICAL FAMILIES
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) name and write the chemical symbols of the first twenty elements of the periodic table
b) describe the structure of the atom and write the electron arrangement of the first twenty elements of the periodic table
c) explain the electron arrangement of the atom in terms of cnergy levels
d) define atomic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass
e) calculate the relative atomic masses from isotopic composition
f) explain the position of an element in the periodic table in terms of the electron arrangement
g) define valency and oxidation number of an element
h) predict the type of ion formed from a given electron arrangement of an atom
i) predict the valencies and oxidation numbers from position of elements in the periodic table
j) derive the formulae of some simple compounds from valences of elements and radicals
k) Write simple balanced chemical equations.
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. The atom is made up of two
regions the central part called the nucleus and a region surrounding the nucleus which forms the electron cloud. It has
three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.The nucleus houses the proton and the neutrons while the
electron cloud contains electrons. Sub – atomic particles are smaller particles that constitute an atom.
Properties of sub-atomic particles
Summary of subatomic particles
Particle Relative mass Symbol Charge
Proton 1 p 1
Electron 1 e 1
1840
Neutron 1 n 0
(i) Protons
1. The proton is positively charged.
2. Is found in the centre of an atom called nucleus.
3. It has a relative mass 1.
4. The number of protons in a atom of an element is its atomic number.
(ii) Electrons
1. The electron is negatively charged.
2. Is found in fixed regions surrounding the centre of an atom called energy levels/shells.
3. It has a relative mass 11840 .
(iii) Neutrons
1. The neutron is neither positively or negatively charged thus neutral.
2. Like protons, it is found in the centre of an atom called nucleus.
3. It has a relative mass 1.
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Diagram showing the relative positions of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom of helium and lithium
Helium Lithium
NB: In an atom, the number of protons equals to the number of electrons and it’s why an atom is electrically neutral.
Atomic number and mass number
Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom.
Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.
NB: In any atom,
Atomic number number of protons number of electrons
Number of Protons Number of electrons that is why an atom is electrically neutral
Mass number protons + neutrons
Number of neutrons mass no – number of protons
When getting the mass of an atom, the mass of electrons is ignored because it is infinitely smaller
(very very very small)/neglible. E.g.
a) Magnesium (Mg) has 12 p and 12 n: Its mass number= 12+12= 24
b) Potassium (K) has 20 p and 19 n: Its mass number= 20+19= 39
When writing the chemical symbol of an element the mass number is written as a superscript on the left while the
atomic number is written as a sub script on the left.
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Copy and complete the table below
Atomic Mass no.
Element Symbol No.of electrons No.of protons No.of neutrons
no.
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 24
Silicon Si 14 14
Sulphur S 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 35
Argon Ar 18 40
Potassium K 19 19 20
Calcium Ca 20 40
Isotopy, isotopes and calculation of relative atomic mass (R.A.M.)
Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass number.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.(Atoms of the same
element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons). Examples of elements with isotopes are
chlorine carbon etc.
Examples of isotopic elements
Atomic Mass
Element Isotope Isotope Protons Neutrons
no. number
12
Carbon – 12
6 C
Carbon
14
Carbon – 14
6 C
107
Silver – 107
47 Ag
Silver
109
Silver – 109
47 Ag
35
Chlorine – 35
17 Cl
Chlorine
37
Chlorine – 37
17 Cl
Relative atomic mass (R.A.M)
R.A.M – This is the average mass of an element compared with an atom of a single carbon – 12, the mass of which is
12 . When calculating the RAM of an element, it can be a fraction because it is an average mass of the isotopes of the
element. R.A.M is measured accurately using a mass spectrometer and the results obtained from such an instrument
are known as mass spectrograms. Mass spectrometer can also be used to obtain the relative abudance of isotopes.
R.A.M is always close to the most abundant isotopes because the most abundant contributes more to the R.A.M.
Example 1
Chlorine is made up of two isotopes as follows:
1. Cl – 35 (75%)
2. Cl – 37 (25%)
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Formula for calculating the R.A.M.
1 1 P2M 2
PM R1M1 R 2M2
R.A.M or R.A.M
100 R1 R 2
P1 Percentage of isotope one P2 Percentage of isotope two
M1 Mass of isotope one M2 Mass of isotope two
R1 Ratio of isotope one R 2 Ratio of isotope two
R.A.M of chlorine 1 1 P2M2
PM
35 75 37 25 2625 925 35.5
100 100 100
Example 2
Chlorine is made up of two isotopes Cl – 37 and Cl – 35 which occur in the ratio 1:3 respectively. Calculate R.A.M of
chlorine.
R1M1 R 2M2 1 37 3 35 37 105 142
R.A.M of chlorine 35.5
R1 R 2 1 3 4 4
Example 3
The R.A.M of chlorine is 35.5. Calculate the relative abundance of its two isotopes; Cl – 37 and Cl – 35.
Solution:
Let percentage of Cl – 37 be x% . That of Cl – 35 will be 100 x %. This is because % mass sums up to 100%.
1 1 P2M2
PM 37 x 35 x 3700 3550
R.A.M
100 2 x 150 x 75%
Substituting: Cl 37 75%
35.5
35 x 37100 x Cl 35 100 75 25%
100
35.5 100 35 x 3700 37 x
3550 35 x 37 x 3700
NB: The R.A.M. of isotopic elements is always close to the most abundant isotope.
Question 1
Chlorine has two isotopes naturally occurring; Cl – 35 and Cl – 37. Given that 75% of all naturally occurring chlorine is
chlorine – 35:
(a) What is the percentage abundance of the other isotope?
(b) Out of 6000 atoms of chlorine, how many will be of the heavier isotope?
(c) Calculate the R.A.M. of chlorine.
Question 2
An element X has R.A.M of 20.2 and has two isotopes X 20 and X 21 .
(a) Which is the most abundant isotope?
(b) Calculate the % of the most abundant isotope.
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Question 3
Boron has two isotopes B 11 and B 10 which occur in the ratio 4:1. Calculate the R.A.M of boron.
Question 4
Carbon has two isotopes; C 14 and C 12, and its relative atomic mass is 12.01. Calculate the relative abudance of
its isotopes.
Question 5
Calculate the R.A.M of potassium from the isotopic compositions given below.
Isotope K – 39 K – 40 K – 41
relative abudance 93.1 0.01 6.89
Question 6
Element M has two isotopes with mass numbers 25 and 29 respectively. The R.A.M. of E is 28.078. Determine the
percentage abundances of the isotopes.
Question 7
The graph below relates to element Q. Use it to determine the relative atomic mass (R.A.M.) of Q show your working.
The height of each peak is proportional to the relative abundance of each isotope.
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Question 8
Element M has two isotopes with mass numbers 25 and 29 respectively. The R.A.M. of
M is 28.078. Determine the percentage abundances of the isotopes.
Question 9
A neutral atom of silicon contains 14 electrons, 92% of silicon – 28, 5% silicon – 29 and 3% of silicon – 30. Calculate
the R.A.M of silicon.
Question 10
Magnesium has three isotopes; Mg – 24, Mg – 25 and Mg – 26 with relative abundances of 79%,10% and 11%
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of magnesium.
ENERGY LEVEL AND ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
Energy level – these are the regions around the nucleus that are occupied by electrons. The arrangement of electrons in
the energy levels is called electron arrangement. The energy level are numbered 1,2,3, starting with the one closest to
the nucleus. Each energy level can only accommodate a given maximum number of electrons
Energy level Maximum electrons
1st energy level 2
2nd energy level 8
3rd energy level 8
NB: The above will only apply for the first 20 elements.
Electron arrangement is also called electronic configuration.
E.g. for lithium with 3 electrons; 2.1
Boron with 5 electrons; 2.3
It can also be represented by a diagram using either a cross or a dot to represent an electron.
E.g Na 11 = 2.8.1, Silicon 14 = 2.8.4
Write the configuration of the first 20 elements, and use it to determine the group, period, whether the element is a metal
or a non – metal and the valence.
Note:
The columns for group, period, metal or non-metal and valence should only be filled when the student has been
taught the subtopic of periodic table and valence respectively
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Atomic Electron Metal/non
Mnemonic Element Symbol Group Period Valency
number arrangement metal
Hi Hydrogen 1
Helen Helium 2
Listens Lithium 3 Li 2 .1 1 2 Metal 1
B Beryllium 4
B Boron 5
C Carbon 6
News Nitrogen 7
On Oxygen 8
Friday Fluorine 9 F 2.7 7 2 Non metal 1
Night Neon 10
Somali Sodium 11
Men Magnesium 12
Arrested Aluminium 13
Six Silicon 14
People Phosphorous 15
Suspected of Sulphur 16
Committing Chlorine 17
A Argon 18
Political Potassium 19
Crime Calcium 20 Ca 2.8.8.2 2 4 Metal 2
PERIODIC TABLE
This is a table of elements are arranged according to their atomic numbers
It is made of periods which run across/rows and groups which run vertically/columns
Periodic table has eight major groups and seven periods
A section of periodic table showing the first twenty elements is shown below
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For The First 20 Elements
N/B: Groups are indicated using capital roman numbers in brackets.
Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost energy level are in the same group.
Elements with the same number of occupied energy levels are in the same period.
Elements whose outermost energy level are filled up are in group eight and that is why Helium is in group
eight and not group two.
Elements in group one to three are usually metals while from group four to eight comprise of non –metals
Silicon is a metalloid (semi-metal) and hydrogen is a non-metal although it is in group one.
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Between group 2 and 3 it is a group of elements called transition elements which have unique characteristics
e.g.
Note
They have variable valencies e.g. copper has valency of 1 Hydrogen is a non-metal though in group (I).
Helium is in group 8 and not group 2 as its
or 2. outermost energy level is filled up.
They form coloured compounds.
They have high melting points and boiling points.
Some form complex ions.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity e.g. Cu ,Fe ,Pb ,Zn.
ION FORMATION
Elements in group eight are called noble gases, this is because they have stable configuration and don’t react with other
elements and exist as single atoms. Atoms of other elements try to achieve the noble gas configuration by either losing
or gaining electrons. Atoms which have lost or gained electrons consequently have a charge.
A charged atom is called an ion. A positively charged ion is called a cation, while a negatively charged ion is called
an anion. When element loses electrons, they acquire a positive charge (cation). When an element gains electrons,
there is increase in negatively charged particles hence acquire a negative charge ( anion).
Atoms with ionic configuration of 2, 2.8, 2.8.8 are said to be stable.
E.g. Magnesium with atomic number of 12 has configuration of 2.8.2. It can become stable by either losing two electrons
to become 2.8 or gaining 6 to became 2.8.8. But it usually loses 2 electron as this requires less energy than gaining six
electrons.
NB: When drawing the structure of atom or ion, it is important to show the composition of the nucleus.
Electrons are shown using dots or crosses .
Element Atom structure Ion structure and configuration
Na—2.8.1 loses one electron to become
Sodium (Na) stable. Na 2.8
23Na
11
Beryllium
7Be
4
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Magnesium
24 Mg
12
Fluorine atom 2.7 gains one electron to
become stable. Fluoride ion – F 2.8 the dot ( •) represent
the gained electron.
Fluorine
19
9F
Phosphorous
31
15 P
Calcium
40
20 Ca
Oxygen
16
8O
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Electronegativity
This is the tendency of an atom to gain electrons. Electronegativity increases across the period but decreases down the
group. This is because as you move across the period there is an increase in nuclear charge and thus a greater attraction
for any incoming electron, but as you go down a group, there is an increase in the number of energy levels and the
shielding effect of the orbitals makes it harder to gain electrons.
Electropositivity
This is the tendency of an atom to lose electrons. It decreases across the period but increases down the group; this is
because as you move across the period, there is decrease in atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge and it will be
harder to lose electron. Electropositivity is also called metallic character.
As you go down the group, there is an increase in the number of occupied energy levels increasing the shielding effect
which makes it easier to loose electrons.
VALENCY
Valency is the combining power of an element. It is usually equal to the number of electrons lost or gained.
E.g. Sodium loses one electron to became stable hence has valency 1. Fluorine gains one electron to became stable
and hence valency one.
Group (I) and group (VII) elements lose and gain one electron respectively and hence have valency one.
Group (II) and group (VI) loses and gains two electrons and hence has a valency of two.
Group (III) and group (V) loses and gains three electrons hence has a valency of three.
Group (IV) has a valency of four.
Group (VIII) have valency 0 because they have a stable configuration and therefore don’t lose or gain
electrons.
Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3 Valency 4
H, Cl, F Mg, Ca, Be, Ba Al C
Br, Na, K Fe, Cu, Hg B Si
Li, Ag, Cu, N Pb, Zn, O, N N, Fe, N Pb, N
Oxidation number/ oxidation state
This is the apparent charge of a particle. Atom in neutral state has an oxidation of zero.
Particle Oxidation Al3 3
number
Na Cl 1
1
S 2 2
Mg2 2 Br O
Radicals
These are groups of atoms that react together as a single unit.
They are usually charged and their valency is equivalent to their charge.
Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3
Ammonium NH4
Sulphate SO 4 2
Phosphate PO 4 3
Chlorate ClO 3
Carbonate CO 3 2
Acetate /ethanoate CH3COO
Sulphite SO 3 2
Nitrate NO 3 , Nitrite NO 2 Hydrogen phosphate
HPO 4 2
Hydrogen carbonate HCO 3 Peroxide O 2
2
Hypochlorite OCl ,Hydroxide OH
Hydrogen sulphate HSO 4
Perchlorate ClO 4
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WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE
When writing chemical formula of a compound you need to know the chemical symbol of the combining elements and
their valencies
Steps to follow
1) Write the chemical symbols of the combining elements/radicals
2) Crisscross their valencies
3. Incase the compound has more than one radical the number of radicals is indicated using brackets. Refer to formular
of Magensium nitrate example 4
Compoun Working Chemical Calcium
d formula Phosphate
Magnesiu Mg 2 N 3
m Nitride
crossmulply
valencies Sodium
Sulphate
Mg3 N2
Na1O 2 Na2O
Sodium crossmulply NH41 3PO
4 (NH4)3PO4
Ammoniu
Oxide
valencies m
phosphate
Mg 2 SO4valence 2
MgSO4 Ammoniu
Magnesiu divide by 2 m
m Sulphate
Sulphate
Aluminium
Magnesiu 2 1 Chloride
m Nitrate
Mg NO 3
Mg NO3 2
Mg(NO3)2 Aluminium
Ammonim
Sulphate
Chloride
Aluminium
Magnesiu
Carbonate
m Chloride
Sodium
Phosphate Aluminium
Phosphate
Calcium Aluminium
Carbonate Nitride
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Aluminium Zinc
Sulphide Phosphate
Aluminium Mercury
Nitrate Nitrate
Mercury
Sulphate
Magnesiu
m
Calcium
Hydroxide
Chlorate
Magnesiu
m
Phosphate Magnesiu
m Per
Chlorate
Magnesiu
Sodium
m
Chlorite
Sulphide
Potassium
Chlorate
Silver
Chloride
Sliver Sodium
Carbonate Sulphite
Sodium
Zinc hydrogen
Nitrate carbonate
Potassium
hydrogen
phosphate
Zinc
Carbonate
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For elements with more variable valences e.g Fe(2or3) Pb(2 0r 4) Cu(1 or 2) the valency used is indicated using roman
numbers in brackets when naming their compound Eg
COMPOUND WORKING FORMULA
Carbon (II)
oxide CO Silicon (IV)
2 2 chloride
2 1 2 1
C O
Carbon (IV) CO2 Iron (II)
oxide 4 2 chloride
2 2 2 1
C O
Iron (III)
Sulphur (IV) chloride
oxide
Iron (II)
sulphate
Sulphur (VI)
oxide Iron (III)
sulphate
Chromium Iron (II)
(III) oxide nitrate
Chromium Iron (III)
(VI) oxide nitrate
Lead (II)
sulphate
Iron (II) oxide
Lead (IV)
chloride
Iron (III)
oxide
Lead (IV)
oxide Iron (II)
phosphate
Lead (II)
oxide
Iron (III)
phosphate
Nitrogen (I)
oxide
Lead (II)
phosphate
Nitrogen(II)
oxide Lead (IV)
phosphate
Nitrogen (IV)
oxide
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 21
Lead (II) Copper (I)
carbonate oxide
Lead (IV)
carbonate Copper (II)
Sulphate
Copper (II)
oxide Lead (II)
ethanoate
WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
When writing chemical equation you need to know the
a)Reactants and the products
b) Chemical symbol of reactants and products
Steps to follow
a) Write the word equation
Sodium Hydroxide sulphuric VI acid
Sodium Sulphate water
b) Write using chemical symbols
NaOH H 2 SO4
Na2 SO4 H 2O
c) balance the equation
2 NaOH H 2 SO4
Na2 SO4 2H 2O
d) include the state symbols
NaOH ( aq ) H 2 SO4 aq
Na2 SO4( aq ) H 2O(l )
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WRITE THE FOLLOWING WORD EQUATIONS INTO CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND BALANCE THEM,
(PUT THE STATES)
1. Iron Sulphur Iron II Sulphide
2. Hydrogen + Chlorine gas
Hydrogen Chloride
3. Hydrogen + Nitrogen
Ammonia
4. Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur IV Oxide
5. Carbon IV Oxide
Carbon Oxygen
6. Zinc Sulphuric VI acid
Zinc Sulphate hydrogen
7. Magnesium Hydrochloric acid
Magnesium Chloride Hydrogen
8. Aluminium Hydrochloricacid
Aluminiumchloride Hydrogen
9. Sodium Carbonate Hydrochloric acid Sodium Chloride Water Carbon IV Oxide
10. Calcium Carbonate Hydrochloric acid Calcium Chloride Water Carbon IV Oxide
11. Copper ( II )Carbonate Hydrochloric acid Copper (II )Chloride Water Carbon IV Oxide
12. Sodium Chloride Water Carbon IV Oxide
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate Hydrochloric acid
13. CalciumCarbonate Sulphuric VI acid CalciumSulphate Water Carbon IV Oxide
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 23
14. Sodium hydroxide Hydrochloricacid
Aluminiumchloride Water
15. Sodium hydroxide Carbon IV Oxide
sodium carbonate Water
16. Sodium peroxide Water
sodium hydroxide oxygen gas
17. Alu min iumOxide Nitric IV acid
Alu min iumnitrate water
18. ZincOxide Hydrochloricacid
ZincChloride Water
19. Copper II Oxide Sulphuric IV acid
Copper II Sulphate Water
20. Copper II Oxide
Copper Oxygen
21. Phosphorus III Oxide
Phosphorus Oxygen
22. Phosphorus V Oxide
Phosphorus Oxygen
23. Iron III Oxide
Iron Oxygen
24. Magnesium Oxygen
MagnesiumOxide
25. Magnesium Nitrogen
Magnesium nitride
25. Carbon II Oxide
Carbon Oxygen
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26. Carbon Copper II Oxide
Copper Carbon IV Oxide
27. Sodium Water
Sodiumhydroxide Hydrogen
28. Calcium Water
Calcium hydroxide Hydrogen
29. Potassium Water
Potassium hydroxide Hydrogen
30. Copper II Oxide Hydrogen
Copper Water
31. Lead II Oxide Hydrogen
Lead Water
32. Iron III Oxide carbon
Iron Carbon IV oxide
33. Hydrogen Oxygen
Water
34. Lead II nitrate SodiumChloride
Lead II Chloride Sodium nitrate
Hydrochloric acid Chloric I acid
35. Chlorine water
36. Magnesium Water
MagnesiumHydroxide Hydrogen
36. Lead II nitrate Lead II Chloride Sodium nitrate
SodiumChloride
37. BariumChloride SodiumCarbonate
BariumCarbonate SodiumChloride
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38. Lead II nitrate Potassiumiodide
Lead II Iodide Potassiumnitrate
39. Iron Copper II Sulphate
Iron II Sulphate Copper
40. Sodium hydroxide chlorine gas
Sodiumchlorate(V ) sodiumchloride Water
41. Aluminium Oxide Hydrochloric acid
Aluminium Chloride Water
42. Aluminium Oxide Sodium hydroxide
Sodium aluminate Water
43. Silver Chloride Water
Silver Oxide Hydrochloric acid
44. Phosphorus V chloride Water
Phosphoric V acid Hydrochloric acid
Iron III Chloride
45. Iron Chlorine
Iron II Chloride hydrogen gas
46. Iron Hydrogen Chloride
47. Lithium Chlorine
Lithium Chloride
48. Lithium Water
Lithium hydroxide Hydrogen
49. Lead II Oxide Carbon
Lead Carbon IV Oxide
50. Iron III Oxide Carbon
Iron Carbon IV Oxide
51. Calcium hydroxide Carbon IV Oxide
Calcium Carbonate Water
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52. Carbon IV Oxide Water
Carbonic acid
53. Calcium Carbonate Carbon IV Oxide Water
Calcium hydrogen Carbonate
54. Magnesium Carbon IV Oxide
MagnesiumOxide Carbon
55. Iron III Oxide Carbon II Oxide
Iron Carbon IV Oxide
Calcium Carbon IV Water
56. Calcium hydrogen Hydrochloric
carbonate acid chloride oxide
57. Sodium hydrogenCarbonate
Heat
SodiumCarbonate Water Carbon IV Oxide
water oxygen gas
manganese IV oxide
58. hydrogen
59. Lead Carbonate
Heat
Lead II Oxide Carbon IV Oxide
60 Ammonium Carbonate
Heat
Ammonia Water Carbon IV Oxide
61. Ammonium hydrogen Sodium Chloride
Sodium hydrogen Ammonium
carbonate carbonate chloride
62. Calcium Hydroxide Ammonium Chloride
CalciumChloride Ammonium Water
63. Potassiumhydroxide Carbon IV Oxide
Potassium hydrogen Carbonate
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64. Ammonium nitrite
Heat
Water Nitrogen gas
65. Calciumhydroxide Ammonium chloride
Calcium chloride Water Ammonia gas
66. Hydrochloric acid Ammonia gas
Ammonium Chloride
67. Sulphuric VI acid Ammonia gas
Ammonium Sulphate
68. Sulphuric IV acid Ammonium hydroxide
Ammonium Sulphate Water
69. Hydrochloric acid Ammonium hydroxide
Ammonium Chloride Water
70. Nitric V acid Ammoniumhydroxide
Ammonium nitrate Water
71. Ammonia gas Oxygen
Water Nitrogen
72. Nitrogen IV Oxide Oxygen Water
Nitric V acid
73. Copper II Oxide Ammonia gas
Copper Water Nitrogen
74. Copper concentrated Nitric V acid
Copper II Nitrate Water Nitrogen IV oxide
75. Nitrogen II Oxide Oxygen
Nitrogen IV Oxide
76. Lead II nitrate
Heat
Lead II Oxide Nitrogen IV Oxide Oxygen
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77. Magnesium Nitrogen IV Oxide
Magnesium Oxide Nitrogen
78. Sulphuric VI Acid Potassium hydrogen Sulphate Nitric V acid
Potassium nitrate
80. Copper Nitric V acid
Copper nitrate Water Nitrogen II Oxide
81. Sodium nitrate
Heat
Sodium nitrite Oxygen
82. Potassium nitrate
Heat
Potassium nitrite Oxygen
83. Copper II nitrate
Heat
Copper II Oxide Nitrogen IV Oxide Oxygen
84. Silver nitrate
Heat
Silver Nitrogen IV Oxide Oxygen
85. Sulphur Nitric V acid
Sulphuric VI acid Nitrogen IV Oxide Water
86. SodiumSulphite Sulphur IV Oxide
Hydrochloric acid SodiumChloride Water
87. Copper Copper II Sulphate Water Sulphur IV Oxide
Sulphuricacid
88. Nitric V acid Sulphur IV Oxide
Nitrogen IV Oxide Sulphuric IV acid
89. Magnesium Sulphur IV Oxide
Magnesium Oxide Sulphur
90. Calcium hydroxide Sulphur IV Oxide
Calcium Sulphate Water
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91. Hydrogen sulphide Sulphur IV Oxide
Sulphur water
Nitrogen II oxide water
92. Ammonia gas oxygen
93. Chlorine gas potassium iodide
potassium chloride iodine
nitrogen I oxide water
94. Ammonium nitrate
95. Sodium Hydroxide Nitrogen IV Oxide
sodium Nitrate sodium Nitrite Water
96. Ammonia Carbon(IV )oxide
Urea water
97. Iron Steam
Tri Irontetraoxide hydrogen gas
98. Potassium Manganate (VII )
heat
Potassium Manganate (VI ) Manganese IV oxide Oxygen gas
99. Phosphorous Nitrogen I Oxide
Phosphorous V Oxide Nitrogen gas
100. Ammonia lead (II )oxide
lead metal Nitrogen gas water
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Balance the equations below
1. Na O2 Na2O
2.
Na Cl2 NaCl
3.
CO O2 CO2
4.
Mg O2 MgO
5.
CH4 O2 CO2 H2O
6.
NaOH H2 SO4 Na2 SO4 H2O
CO2 Ca OH 2 CaCO3 H 2O
7.
8.
H2 Cl2 HCl
9.
Na H2O NaOH H2
10.
H2O2 H2O O2
11.
AgNO3 Ag NO2 O2
Fe OH 3 Fe2O3 H 2O
12.
13.
Mg N2 Mg3 N2
Mg3 N2 H 2O Mg OH 2 NH 3
14.
15.
KMnO4 HCl KCl MnCl2 Cl2 H2O
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 31
16.
PbO2 HCl PbCl2 H2O Cl2
17.
CO2 H2O C6 H12O6 O2
Pb NO3 2 PbO NO2 O2
18.
19.
H2 S SO2 S H2O
20.
NO2 H2O HNO2 HNO3
21.
NaHCO3 Na2CO3 H2O CO2
22.
H2 S O2 H2O SO2
23. NH3 O2 NO H2O
24. NH4 NO3 N2O H2O
25. NH4 NO2 N2 H2O
26. PCl5 H2O H3 PO4 HCl
27. PCl3 H2O H3 PO3 HCl
2 5 H 2O H3 PO4
28. PO
2 3 H2O H3 PO3
29. PO
30. C2 H6 O2 CO2 H 2O
31. H2CO3 H2O CO2
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 32
32. CaCO3 CaO CO2
33. CaO H 2O Ca OH 2
34. H2 SO3 H2O SO2
35. H 3 PO4 Ca OH 2 CaHPO4 .2 H 2O
36. SO3 H2O H2 SO4
37. Be OH 2 BeO H 2O
38. BaO H 2O Ba OH 2
39. Li2O H2O LiOH
40. Na2 HPO4 Na4 PO
2 7 H 2O
41. CaC2 N 2
CaCN 2 C2 .
42.Mg OH 2
MgO H 2O.
43.NaCl NH 4 HCO3
NaHCO3 NH 4Cl
44.Ca ( HCO3 ) 2
CaCO3 CO2 H 2O
45.FeS H 2 SO4
H 2 S FeSO4
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 33
46.( NH 4 ) 2 SO4 CaCO3
( NH 4 ) 2 CO3 CaSO4
47. Hg 2CO3
Hg HgO CO2
48.BeF2 Mg MgF2 Be
49.SiO2 Ca OH 2
CaSiO3 H 2O
50. K2O H 2O
KOH
51. C H 2O
CO H 2
52. Ca OH 2 CO2
Ca( HCO3 )2
53. SiO2 Na2CO3
Na2 SiO3 CO2
54. BaO2 H 2 SO4
BaSO4 H 2O2
55. Na2Cr2O7 S
Cr2O3 Na2 SO4
56. Ca OH 2 CO2
CaCO3 H 2O
57. Fe2O3 SiO2
Fe2 Si2O7
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58. CO2 NH3 H 2O
NH 4 HCO3
59. Na2O H 2O
NaOH
60. NH 4 NO3
N 2 O H 2O
61. Al OH 3 NaOH
NaAlO2 H 2O
62. H 2O2
H 2O O2
63. Ca(ClO3 )2
CaCl2 O2
64. PCl5 H 2O
POCl3 HCl
65. Al2O3 Na2CO3
NaAlO2 CO2
66. Zn HCl
ZnCl2 H 2
67. BeO C Cl2
BeCl2 CO
Be OH 2 ( NH 4 ) 2 SO4
68.BeSO4 NH 4OH
69. K Br2
KBr
70. NaHCO3
Na2CO3 CO2 H 2O 75. BaCO3 HNO3
Ba ( NO3 ) 2 CO2 H 2O2
71. MnS HCl
H 2 S MnCl2 76.CaO C
CaC2 CO
C2 H 2 Ca OH 2
72. CaC2 H 2O 77.Zn OH 2 NaOH
Na2 ZnO2 H 2O
Cu CN 2 K 2 SO4
73. CuSO4 KCN 78. Mn2O3 Al
Al2O3 Mn
74. Ca OH 2 H 3 PO4 NH 3 Al OH 3
CaHPO4 H 2O 79. AlN H 2O
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 35
80.Ca3 ( PO4 ) 2 H 2 SO4
CaSO4 Ca ( H 2 PO4 ) 2
81. S N 2O
SO2 N 2
82. N 2 H 2
NH 3
83. CaCO3 HCl
CaCl2 H 2O CO2
NaNO3 Zn OH 2
84. NaOH Zn( NO3 ) 2
85. H 3 PO4 Ca OH 2
Ca ( H 2 PO4 ) 2 H 2O
Ca HS 2 Ca OH 2
86.CaS H 2O
CuCO3 .Cu OH 2
87. Cu CO2 O2 H 2O
88. Sn OH 2 NaOH
Na2 SnO2 H 2O
89. NaCl H 2 SO4
Na2 SO4 HCl
90. Fe OH 3
Fe2O3 H 2O
91. NaOH Cl2
NaCl NaClO H 2O
92. CH 4 O2
CO2 H 2O
93. SiH 4 O2
SiO2 H 2O
94. Pb OH 2 NaOH
Na2 PbO2 H 2O
95. Si NaOH H 2O
Na2 SiO3 H 2
96. Si S8
Si2 S 4
97. CaS 2 O2
CaS 2O3
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 36
98. Na2 S 2 O2
Na2 S 2O3
99. HCl K 2CO3
KCl H 2O CO2
100. KClO3
KCl O2
Na2 Zn OH 4 H 2
101. Zn NaOH H 2O
102. Na2CO3 HCl
NaCl H 2O CO2
103. Ca OH 2 P4O10 H 2O
Ca ( H 2 PO4 ) 2
104. CaS H 2O CO2
Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 H 2 S
105. Na H 2O
NaOH H 2
109. Fe2O3 CO
Fe CO2
110. Pb( NO3 ) 2
PbO NO2 O2
111. Al2 ( SO4 )3 Ca OH 2
CaSO4 Al OH 3
112 . Ca3 ( PO4 ) 2 H 2 SO4
CaSO4 H 3 PO4
113. SiCl4 H 2O
H 4 SiO4 HCl
114. Ca AlCl3
CaCl2 Al
115. FeCl3 Ca OH 2
CaCl2 Fe OH 3
116. Al2O3 C N 2
AlN CO
117. NO NaOH
NaNO2 H 2O N 2O
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118. Pb3O4 HNO3
Pb( NO3 ) 2 PbO2 H 2O
119. KO2 CO2
K 2CO3 O2
120. P4O10 H 2O
H 3 PO4
121. Fe H 2O O2
Fe2O3 .H 2O
122. H 3 PO4 HCl
PCl5 H 2O
123. MnO2 KOH O2
K 2 MnO4 H 2O
124 PCl5 H 2O
H 3 PO4 HCl
125. P4O6 H 2O
H 3 PO3
126. Al OH 3 H 2 SO4
Al2 ( SO4 )3 H 2O
K 2 SO4 Fe OH 3
127. Fe2 ( SO4 )3 KOH
128. Bi ( NO3 )3 H 2 S
Bi2 S3 HNO3
129. V2O5 HCl
VOCl3 H 2O
130. Cr OH 3 H 2 SO4
Cr2 ( SO4 )3 H 2O
140. Hg OH 2 H 3 PO4
Hg3 ( PO4 ) 2 H 2O
141. Fe H 2O
Fe3O4 H 2
Ca OH 2 PH 3
142. Ca3 P2 H 2O
143. H 2 SO4 Al OH 3
Al2 ( SO4 )3 H 2O
144. Al ( NO3 )3 Na2CO3
Al2 (CO3 )3 NaNO3
145. K 2 MnO4 H 2 SO4
KMnO4 MnO2 K 2 SO4 H 2O
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146. C2 H 2 O2
CO2 H 2O
147. C3 H 8 O2
CO2 H 2O
148. As NaOH
Na3 AsO3 H 2
149. H 3 BO3 Na2CO3
Na2 B4O7 CO2 H 2O
150. Al HCl
AlCl3 H 2
151. V2O5 Ca
CaO V
152. Na2 B4O7 HCl H 2O
NaCl H 3 BO3
153. C2 H 3Cl O2
CO2 H 2O HCl
154. I 2 HNO3
HIO3 NO2 H 2
155. FeS O2
Fe2O3 SO2
156 Ca3 ( PO4 ) 2 C
Ca3 P2 CO
157. NH 3 O2
NO H 2O
158. Hg 2CrO4
Cr2O3 Hg O2
159. S8 O2
SO3
160. NH 3 NO
N 2 H 2O
161. HClO4 P4O10
H 3 PO4 Cl2O7
162. CO2 H 2O
C6 H12O6 O2
163. FeS 2 O2
Fe2O3 SO2
164. Si2 H 3 O2
SiO2 H 2O
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 39
165 P4 H 2O
H 3 PO4 H 2
166. C6 H 6 O2
CO2 H 2O
167. C10 H16 Cl2
C HCl
168. C7 H 6O2 O2
CO2 H 2O
169. C7 H16 O2
CO2 H 2O
170. C7 H10 N O2
CO2 H 2O NO2
171. KNO3 C12 H 22O11
N 2 CO2 H 2O K 2CO3
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 40
REVISION QUESTIONS ON ATOMIC STRUCTURE PERIODIC TABLE
1. An atom of sodium is represented as:2311Na
(a) Calculate the number of neutrons in the nucleus of a sodium atom. [1 mark]
(b) Write the electronic configuration of a sodium atom. [1 mark]
(c) State ;
(i) the group to which sodium belongs [1 mark]
(ii) the period to which sodium belongs [1 mark]
2. Study the grid below which represents part of the periodic table and then use it to answer the questions that follow.
The letters are not actual symbols of the elements.
B C D E F
G H
(a) Select two non-metals [2 mark]
(b) Select two metals [1 mark]
(c) Select a metalloid
(d) Write the formular of compound formed when the following elements react.
I. G and E
II. B and H
III. C and oxygen
IV. C and E
(e) An element that can form an ion with a charge of +2……………. [1 mark]
(f) An element that can form an ion with a charge of -1 …………….. [1 mark]
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 41
(g) Element P is in period two. and forms ions with the formular P3- place it in the grid above
3. . An element P has mass 39 and 20 neutrons.
a) Calculate the number of electrons of the atom P [1 mark]
b) Draw the atomic structure of element P using crosses (x) to represent electrons in the space provided below
[2 marks]
c) Which period does element P belong? ………………… [1 mark]
d) An element G consists of isotopes of mass 10 and 11 with some percentage abundances, the relative atomic
mass is 10.813, calculate their percentage abundances. (3 marks)
4. (a) What are isotopes? [2 marks]
(c) An element X has 3 isotopes with mass number 22, 24 and 25 in the ratio 2:3:1. Calculate its relative atomic
mass. [3 marks]
5. Complete the table below (2½ mks)
Particles Symbols Charges Mass
Electrons 1/
1840
Neutrons N
Proton
6. An atom of element X can be represented as follows
a) Write the electronic configuration of X. (1 mk)
24
X
12
b) Find the number of neutrons in the atom of X. (1 mk)
7. Write the configuration of the ions below (4mks)
a) Ca3+
b) S+6
c) Cl+2
d) S2-
8. A certain atom x has a mass number of 35 and atomic number of 17. What is the number of;
a) Protons (1 mark)
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 42
b) Electrons (1 mark)
c) Neutrons (1 mark)
9. An ion P2- has electron arrangement 2.8.
a) What is the atomic number of the element? (1mk)
b) Which group and period does the element belong? Give reason. (2mks)
10. A certain element Z has electron arrangement as 2.8.3
a) What is the formula of the ion. (1 mark)
b) What is the oxidation number of its ion? (1 mark)
11. Study the table below and answer the question that follows. The letters X, Y and Z are not actual symbols of the
element.
Element Protons Neutrons Mass Number
X 12 - 24
Y 17 18 -
Z - 12 23
a) Complete the table (3 marks)
b) Write down the electron arrangement of Z (1 mark)
c) Write down the formula of the compound formed when X combines with Y. (1 mark)
12. The table below shows some elements in the periodic table. Use it to answer the questions that follow. The
letters are not the actual symbols of the elements.
P T M V U
S Q
a) An element K has atomic number 18. Indicate its position in the grid. (1 mark)
b) Identify two elements in the same group (2 marks)
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 43
c) Identify two elements in the same period. (2 marks)
d) Write the electron configuration of ions of elements: (4 marks)
V Q
P M
13. Write a balanced chemical equation for each of the following compounds.
a) Action of dilute hydrochloric acid on calcium carbonate. (1mk)
b) Reacting sodium metal with water to obtain sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. (1 mk)
c) Reaction between Sodium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid. (1 mk)
14. An isotope P has 18 neutrons a mass number of 34.
a) i). Draw the atomic structure of P. (2 marks)
ii). Write its electron arrangement. (1 mark)
b) To which period and group does P belong? Explain your answer. (2 mks)
15. Determine the relative atomic masses of the following elements whose isotopic composition in proportions given.
(3mks)
i. Potassium
40 K (0.01%), 39 K (93.1%) and 41 K (6.89%)
19 19 19
ii. Calculate the number of neutrons in each isotope of potassium. (3 mks)
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 44
16. Complete the table below. The symbols are not the actual symbols of elements. (7½ mks)
Atom Electron Formular of Ion Valency Oxidation
arrangement number
X 2.3
Y 2.8.2
W 2.7
Z 2.5
P 2.8.8
17. Write the chemical formula of the following. (4 mks)
a) Sodium chloride
b) Calcium sulphate
c) Potassium carbonate
d) Calcium nitrate
18. The two isotopes of carbon are 12 6C and 13 6C with relative abundance of 98.8% and 1.2% respectively.
Work out the relative atomic mass. (R.A.M) (3 marks)
19. a). What are isotopes? (1 mark)
b). Lithium has two isotopes 7
3Li and 6
3Li Determine the number of neutrons in 7
3Li ( 2 marks)
c). If the relative atomic mass of lithium is 6.94 which of the two isotopes is the most abundant? Give a reason (
2 marks)
20. Atoms of element X exist as 14 X and
6
12 X
6
a) What name is given to the two types of atoms? (1 mark)
b) Use dot ( .) and (x) diagrams to illustrates the atomic structure of 14
6X ( 2 marks)
c) Write the electron configuration of the atom in (b) hence. Write the formula of the compound formed when it
combines with oxygen ( 0 = 8) ( 2 mks)
d)
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21. A student represented an atom of element Z as shown in the diagram below
xx x
xx
Z xx
xx
xx
a) What is the atomic number of element Z? Explain ( 2 marks)
b) Write the formula and electron arrangement of the ion of Z
c) Write equation for the reaction of Z with chlorine
22. An element Y has an electron arrangement of 2.8.5.
a) State the period and group which the elements belongs ( 1 mark)
b) Write the formula of the most stable ion formed when element Y ionizes (1 mark)
23. An element X, consists of three isotopes with mass number of 22, 24 and 25 with percentage abundance of 89.6%,
6.4% and 4.0% respectively. Find the relative atomic mass of element X, ( 3 mks)
24. (a) Distinguish between the following:
i. Atomic number and mass number (2 marks)
ii. Mass number and relative atomic mass (2 marks)
(b) Atoms are said to be electrically neutral. Explain (2 mks)
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 46
25. A certain atom has the following symbol 199Y. What is the number of (5 mks)
i. Protons
ii. Neutrons
iii. Electrons
iv. Mass number
v. Atomic number
26. Write the electronic configuration of potassium and carbon with atomic numbers 19 and 6 respectively ( 2 marks)
27. Define the following:-
a) Element (1 mark)
b) Atom (1 mark)
c) Molecule (1 mark)
d) Compound (1 mark)
28. An element X is represented as 40 18X. (Note that X does not represent the actual symbol of the element)
a) Give the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom of the element (1 mark)
b) Give the electronic configuration of its atom (1 mark)
c) State the group to which the element belongs (1 mark)
d) Give a reason for your answer (1 mark)
e) What would you say about the reactivity of element X? (1 mark)
29. Naturally occurring boron exists as two isotopes 10 5B with relative abundance of 20% and 11
5B with a relative
abundance of 80%
a) How many electrons does atom of boron contain (1 mark)
b) How many neutrons does each atom of the most abundant isotope contain? (1 mark)
c) Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron (3 marks)
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 47
d) Show the distribution of electrons in the energy levels in an atom of 11
5B. Show the composition of the
nucleus (2 marks)
30. The following table gives some information about five different atoms. Study it and answer the question that follow.
(The letters do not represent the actual symbols at the elements).
ATOM ATOMIC NUMBER MASS NUMBER
V 8 16
W 11 23
X 12 26
Y 12 27
Z 17 35
a) Write down the electronic arrangement of
V- (1 mark)
W2+ (1 mark)
X -2 (1 mark)
Y (1 mark)
Z (1mark)
b) Which of the atoms belong to non-metallic elements? (2 marks)
c) What is the formula for aluminium ion? (1 mark)
31. Write word equations for the reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and;
a) Magnesium metal (1mk
b) Calcium hydrogen carbonate ( 1 mark)
c) Potassium hydroxide (1 mark)
32. Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds.
a) Sodium carbonate (1 mark)
b) Zinc chloride (1 mark)
c) Potassium oxide (1 mark)
d) Aluminium sulphate (1 mark)
Topnotch chemistry notes form two 48
e) Calcium nitrate (1 mark)
33. An element Z is in group (III) and period 2 in the periodic table
a) Write down the electron pattern of the atom of element Z. ( 1 mark)
b) Draw the atomic structure of the atom of element Z showing the composition of the nucleus. (2 marks)
34. (a) Fill in the blank spaces in the table below.
Particle Mass Number of Number of Number of
Number Protons Neutrons electrons
L1 + ion - 3 4 -
12C - 6 - -
( 2 ½ marks)
(b) Write the electron pattern of L1 atom. ( 1 mark)
(c) Draw the atomic structure of the L1+ ion. (1 ½ marks)
35. Write down balanced chemical equations from the reactions below.
(a) Hydrogen gas reacts with chlorine gas to form hydrogen chloride gas. (2 marks)
(b) Magnesium carbonate decomposes on heating to form magnesium oxide and carbon (1V) oxide gas.
(2 marks)
(c) Calcium metal reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide solution and hydrogen gas. (2 marks)
36. Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produce a gas which is colourless
a) Identify the gas that was produced (1 mark)
b) State two properties of this gas (1 mark)
c) Write an equation for the reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid (2 mks)
37. The figure below represents part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent actual symbols of the elements.
Use it to answer the questions that follow.
V
U
P Q T R S
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a) What is the name for the elements that occupy the shaded region? (1 mark)
b) Select two elements which belong to the same group. (1 mark)
c) State the period to which element T belongs (1 mark)
d) Write down the electron pattern for the atom of element R (1 mark)
e) State the valence electrons in the atom of element S (1 mark)
f) Indicate on the grid the position of element Y which belongs to period 3 and has an ionic charge of 3+.
(1 mk)
38. Naturally occurring silver consists of two isotopes
107 Ag and 109 Ag
47 47
They occur in equal numbers. Calculate the relative atomic mass of silver.
39. An element whose atomic number is 14 has three isotopes A, B and C. Use the information given in the table below
to answer the questions that follow.
Isotopes No of neutrons % abundance
A 14 92.0
B 15 -
C 16. 3.0.
a) Determine the relative abundance of the isotope B (1 mark)
b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of the element above. ( 3 marks)
40. Write down the correct chemical equations for the word equations below and then balance them fully.
(a) Sodium oxide + water sodium hydroxide (2 marks)
(b) Copper + 0xygens copper (II) oxide (2 marks)
(c) Chlorine gas + Hydrogen gas Hydrogen chloride (2 marks)
(d) Carbon + Oxygen carbon (II) oxide (2 mks)
41. Write down the electron pattern for the following
i. Boron (5 electrons)
ii. Fluorine (9 electrons)
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iii. Phosphorus (15 electrons)
iv. Hydrogen ( 1 electrons)
v. Neon ( 10 electrons)
42. Draw the electrons structure of the atom of an element represented as.(2 marks)
40
X
20
43. Write down the electron pattern for the ions of the atoms shown below.
24 27
i) M iv) Al
12 13
32 35
ii) S i) Cl
16 17
44. Calculate the relative atomic mass of an element Y whose isotopic composition is as follows: (3 marks)
63 56
Y 71% and Y 29%
29 29
45. An atom if an element Z with mass number 40 is represented below.
xx
xx
xx
xx
Z xx
xx xx
xx xx
Determine:
a) The atomic number of Z. ( 1mk)
b) The number of electrons in Z ( 1 mk)
c) The number of neutrons in Z ( 1 mk)
d) The period of Z ( 1 mk)
e) The group of Z ( 1 mk)
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46. The electron arrangement of ions X3+ and Y-2 are 2:8 and 2:8:8 respectively.
a) Write the electron arrangement of elements X and Y (2 marks)
b) Write the formula of the compound that would be formed between X and Y (1 mark)
47. An element Q can be represented as 40
20Q (Q is not necessarily the symbol of the element). Identify its
a) Mass number (½ mark)
b) Atomic number (½ mark)
c) Number of Neutrons (½ mark)
d) The period and group in which element Q belongs. (1 mark)
e) Draw the atomic structure of Q showing the electron arrangement. (1 mark)
48. Given that elements X has atomic number 16. State the:
a) Number of electrons of atom X (1 mark)
b) Electron arrangement of X (1 mark)
c) The formula of the Ion of X. (1 mark)
49. a) An element Q has two Isotopes with relative abundance of 65% and 35%. If the mass number of the two isotopes
is X and 31 respectively. Find the mass number represented by X given the R.A.M. of element Q is 30. (3 marks)
(b)An element B consists of two Isotopes B – 35 and B – 37 in the ratio 3:1 respectively. Calculate the R.A.M. of B.
(3 mks)
50. The table below gives elements represented by letters T – Y and their atomic number. (The letters do not represent
the actual chemical symbols of the elements)
Elements T U V W X Y
Atomic numbers 12 13 14 15 16 17
Electron arrangements
a) Complete the table giving the electron arrangement of each of the element (3 marks)
b) In which period of the periodic table do these elements belong. (1 mark)
c) Write the formula of the compound formed between T and X. (1 mark)
d) Write the formula of the carbonate of element U. (1 mark)
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51. Element X,Y and Z have the following electronic configuration.
X – 2.2
Y – 2.8.2
Z – 2.8.8.2
a) To which group of the periodic table do element X,Y, and Z belong. (1 mark)
b) What is the valency of the elements in the group. (1 mark)
c) Write the formula of their:
i. Carbonates
ii. Nitrates of the above elements (3 marks)
52. The grid given below represents part of the periodic table. The letters are not actual symbols of the elements.
V
U H
G Q K T D S
a) Write down the electronic configuration of elements Q (1 mark)
b) Write the symbol Ion of D (1 mark)
c) Write the formula of the compound formed when:
i. G combined with D.
ii. K combined with H (2 marks)
d) Element M has atomic number 15. Locate its position using (X) in the grid above. (1 mark)
53. Write the formula of the following compounds. (5 mks)
(i)Lithium chloride.
(ii)Zinc (11)chloride
(iv)Zinc (ii) sulphate
(iii)Calcium carbonate-
(v)Lead (11) Nitrate
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54. The valencies of metals X, Y and Z are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Write the formula of their:- (6 marks)
a) Hydroxides (OH)
b) Sulphates(SO42-)
55. An ion of phosphorous can be represented as 31 P3-
15
Draw a diagram to show the distribution of the electrons and the composition of the nucleus of the ion of phosphorous.
56. Elemement P,Q,R,and S have atomic numbers 2,10,12,and 17 respectively , select two elements that belong to the
same group (2 marks)
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CHAPTER TWO: CHEMICAL FAMILIES
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) identify alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, halogens and noble gases in the periodic table and write their electron
arrangement
b) state and explain trends in physical properties of alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, halogens and noble gases
c) state and explain the trends in reactivity of the alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals and halogens
d) explain the similarities in formulae of compounds formed by alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals and halogens
e) state the uses of alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, halogens and noble gases
f) explain the unreactive nature of the noble gases in terms of their electron arrangement
g) identify the elements in a given period and write their electron arrangement
h) state and explain the trends in physical properties of elements in a period
i) state and explain the trend in chemical behaviour of elements in a given period
INTRODUCTION
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons in the
outermost energy level. Elements in the same group belong to the same chemical family. There are four chemical
families in the periodic table
1. Group I – alkali metals
2. group II – alkaline earth metals
3. group VII –halogens
4. Group VIII – noble gases
ALKALI METALS
These are elements in group I of the periodic table and include Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and
francium. They have one electron in their outermost energy level and are therefore monovalent
Element Symbol Atomic Electron structure Formular of Valency Oxidation
number ion state
Lithium Li 3 2:1 Li+ 1 +1
Sodium Na 11 2:8:1 Na + 1 +1
Potassium K 19 2:8:8:1 K+ 1 +1
Rubidium Rb 37 2:8:18:8:1 Rb+ 1 +1
Caesium Cs 55 2:8:18:18:8:1 Cs+ 1 +1
Francium Fr 87 2:8:18:32:18:8:1 Fr+ 1 +1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Have a metallic luster/shine when polished
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Are soft and can be easily cut with a knife
Relatively low melting point and boiling point due their weak metallic bond as they have a bigger atomic radius
Less dense than water
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Group 1 element are usually stored under paraffin to prevent them from coming into contact and reacting with air and
moisture.
Summary of physical properties
Element appearance Ease of Melting Boiling Electrical Atomic ionic 1st
cutting point oC point oC conductivity radius radius ionization
energy
Lithium Silvery white Slightly 180 1330 Good 0.133 0.060 520
hard
Sodium Shiny grey Easy 98 890 Good 0.157 0.095 496
Potassium Shiny grey Easy 64 774 good 0.203 0.133 419
Trends in physical properties down the group
Alkali metals have relatively low meting point and boiling point. The melting point and boiling point decrease down
the group due to decrease in strength of metallic bonding with increase in atomic size. NB; strength of metallic
bonding is determined by the atomic radius the larger the atomic radius the weaker the metallic bond
Ease of cutting increase down the group due to decrease in strength of metallic bond with increase in atomic size.
Atomic masses increase down the group due to increase in number of protons and neutrons
The atomic radius and ionic radius increase down the group due to increase in number of occupied energy
levels
The atomic radius is greater than ionic radius because the alkali metals react by losing one electron in the
outermost energy level hence their ions have one less occupied energy levels
The ionization energy decrease down the group due to increase in atomic radius which decreases the force of
attraction between the outermost electron and the positive nucleus.
The electrical conductivity increase down the group due to decrease in force of attraction between the nucleus
and outer electron with increase in atomic radius hence the electrons are more delocalised
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Alkali metals react by losing outermost electrons to form a monovalent cation.
The ionization energy is the minimum
Li ( q ) e 1st ionization energy 520 kJ / mol
Li (s ) energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous
Na ( g ) e 1st ionization energy 496 kJ / mol
Na (s )
atoms.
K ( g ) e 1st ionization energy 419 kJ / mol
K (s ) NB .reaction is endothermic ∆H = +ve
The ionization energy decrease down the group due to increase in atomic radius which decreases the attraction
between the outermost electron and the positive nucleus. hence potassium having the largest atomic radius
amongst the first three alkali metals ,require least energy to remove the outermost electron.
Therefore is the most reactive/most electropositive element among the first 3 group one
elements
-Lithium, sodium and potassium react vigorously with both air and water and that is why they are stored under paraffin.
-When sodium is exposed it reacts with moisture in the air to form sodium hydroxide, which further reacts with CO 2 in
the air to form sodium carbonate
2 Na( s ) H 2O( s )
2 NaOH ( aq ) H 2 ( g )
2 NaOH ( aq ) CO2 ( g )
Na2CO3 .H 2O( s )
i) Reaction of alkali metals with air /oxygen
-Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to form a white solid which is a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium nitride,
but sodium oxide is a major component because oxygen is more reactive than nitrogen.
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4 Na( S ) O2 g
2 Na2O s
2 Na s N 2 ( g )
2 Na3 N ( s )
-When water is added to the above solid alkaline solution is formed which is sodium hydroxide, when water is added
to sodium nitride ammonia gas is evolved which has a characteristic pungent smell and turns red litmus turns blue.
Na2O( s ) H 2O( l )
2 NaOH ( aq )
Na3 N ( s ) 3H 2O(l )
3NaOH ( aq ) NH 3( g )
-Sodium burns in air enriched with oxygen to from mainly sodium peroxide(yellow)
2 Na( S ) O2 g
Na2O2( s )
When water is added to the sodium peroxide gas that relights a glowing splint (oxygen) is evolved
2 Na2O2( s ) 2 H 2O(l )
4 NaOH ( aq ) O2 ( g )
Potassium burns in air with a lilac flame to form a white solid which is potassium oxide.
4 K( s ) O2 ( g )
2 K2O( s )
Lithium burns in air with a red flame forming lithium oxide
4 Li( s ) O2 ( g )
2 L2O( s )
Nb; reactivity of group I metals increase down the group due to increase in atomic radius which decrease the force of
attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons and also increase in shielding effect hence the electron is easily
lost in larger atoms.
ii) Reaction with water.
Alkali metals react with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The reactivity of alkali metals increase
down the group due to increase in atomic radii which increase the ease in which the atom loses the outermost electrons.
Observations when alkali metals are placed in water
Alkali metal Observations Comparative speed/rate
of the reaction
Lithium -Metal floats in water Moderate
-effervescence//bubbles of colourless gas produced that
extinguishes burning splint with a pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14
Sodium -Metal floats in water, melts into silvery ball, darts on the surface of Very vigorous
water , very rapid effervescence /bubbles of a , colourless gas
produced that extinguishes a burning splint with a“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14
Potassium -Metal floats in water,-melts into a silvery ball/burst into a lilac flame Explosive/burst into
-darts on the surface of water bubbles of a colourless gas produced flames
(that extinguishes burning splint with explosion /“pop” sound)
-resulting solution turn phenolphthalein indicator pink
-pH of solution = 12/13/14
Explanation
Alkali metals are less dense than water. They therefore float in water. the reaction produced hydrogen gas hence
effervescence, the metal melts into a silvery ball because the reaction is exothermic,and hydrogen burns with a pop
sound ,the hydrogen produced propels the metal hence darts on the surface of water, They react with water to form a
strongly alkaline solution of their hydroxides and hence turns phenolphthalein indicator pink/turns red litmus paper
blue. The rate of this reaction increase down the group. i.e. Potassium is more reactive than sodium .Sodium is more
reactive than Lithium.
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chemical equations
2 Li( s ) 2 H 2O(l )
2 LiOH ( aq ) H 2( g ) Reactivity increase
down the group
2 Na s 2 H 2Ol
2 NaOH aq H 2 g
2 K s 2 H 2Ol
2 KOH aq H 2 g
NB: potassium bursts into a lilac flame when reacted with water. The reaction ios highly exothermic such that the
hydrogen gas produced ignites. It burns with lilac flame due to presence of potassium vapour.
iii) Reaction with chlorine
Alkali metal reacts with chlorine to form the corresponding metal chlorides, reactivity increase down the group
When hot sodium metal is lowered into a chlorine gas, it bursts into a yellow flame forming white fumes of sodium
chloride.
2 Na( s ) Cl2 ( g )
2 NaCl( s )
2 Li( s ) Cl2 ( g )
2 LiCl( s )
2 K ( s ) Cl2 ( g )
2 KCl( s )
Similarity of ions and formulae of the compounds formed between an alkali metal ion and hydroxide.
Akali metal ion OH- SO42- PO43- ClO4- HCO3- Nitride N3-
Li+ LiOH LiClO4
Na+ Na2SO4
K+ K3PO4
USES OF ALKALI METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
1. Sodium is used in making of sodium cyanide is used in extraction of gold
2. Lithium is used in manufacture of high special strength glasses and ceramics
3. Lithium compounds are used in the manufacture of dry cells for use in mobile phones, laptops etc
4. Sodium vapour is used to produce yellow glow in streetlights.
5. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive.
6. Sodium hydroxide is used in manufacture of soap.
7. Sodium is used as a reducing agent in extraction of titanium from titanium (IV) chloride.
8. A molten mixture of sodium and potassium are used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Group II elements are called Alkaline earth metals . The alkaline earth metals included.
Group two elements are called alkaline earth metals because;
They are abundant in the earth’s crust
They dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions.
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Formular Valency Oxidation state
number structure of ion
Beryllium Be 4 2:2 Be2+ 2 +2
Magnesium Mg 12 2:8:2 Mg2+ 2 +2
Calcium Ca 20 2:8:8:2 Ca2+ 2 +2
Strontium Sr 38 2:8:18:8:2 Sr2+ 2 +2
Barium Ba 56 2:8:18:18:8:2 Ba2+ 2 +2
Radium Ra 88 2:8:18:32:18:8:2 Ra2+ 2 +2
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Alkaline earth metals are better conductors/have higher
electrical conductivity than alkali metals because they have
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALINE more delocalized electrons than alkali metals.
Alkaline earth metals have relatively stronger metallic
EARTH METALS bonding than alkali metals because they have smaller
good conductors of heat and electricity atomic radii and more valence electrons.
Hard and cannot be easily cut with a knife
Have a dull appearance due to coating of their oxides but when freshly cut they have a metallic luster
Have higher melting point and boiling point than alkali metals due their stronger metallic bonding
Are denser than water that is why they don’t float on water/ They sink in water.
Are malleable (can be hammered into sheets)
Are ductile (can be drawn into wires)
Trends in physical properties of group 2 elements
Element symbol Electronic Atomic Melting Boiling Ionic First second
configuration radius Point point radius ionization ionization
energy energy
Beryllium Be 2.2 0.089 1280 2450 0.031 900 1800
magnesium Mg 2.8.2 0.136 650 1110 0.065 736 1450
Calcium Ca 2.8.8.2 0.174 850 1140 0.099 590 1150
Trends in physical properties
Atomic radius and ionic radius increase down the group due to increase in number of occupied energy levels.
Atomic masses increase down the group due to increase in number of protons and neutrons
The atomic radius is greater than ionic radius because the atom reacts by losing two electrons in the outermost
energy level and therefore the ion has one less occupied energy level than the atom.
Ionization energy decrease down the group due to decrease in the force of attraction between the positive
nuclei and the outermost electron with increase in atomic radius.
The second ionization energy is greater than the first ionization energy because when the first electron is lost
the overall positive charge attracts the remaining electron more firmly.
Alkaline earth metals have a higher boiling points and melting points than alkali metals because alkaline earth metals have
more delocalized electrons hence stronger metallic bonding than alkali metals.
Alkali earth metals react by losing two electrons to become stable and therefore have valence of 2 and oxidation state
of +2
Mg Mg e
1 I .E 736
st
Mg Mg 2
e 2 I .E 1450
nd
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALINE EARTH METALS
i) Burning in air
Magnesium burns in air with a brilliant white flame to form a white solid which is a mixture of MgO and Mg3N2
2Mg( S ) O2 g
2MgO s
3Mg s N 2( g )
Mg3 N 2( s )
Calcium also burns in air with a red flame forming a white solid. Which is also a mixture of Calcium Oxide and Calcium
Nitride.
2Ca( S ) O2 g
2CaO s
3Ca s N 2( g )
Ca3 N 2( s )
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Reaction with steam (refer to notes on water and hydrogen
ii) Reaction with dilute acids.
Alkaline earth metals react with dilute acid to form the corresponding salt and hydrogen gas. The reaction is
accompanied by effervescence and generates heat.
Mg ( s ) H 2 SO4 aq
MgSO4 ( aq ) H 2 ( g )
Mg ( s ) 2 HCl aq
MgCl2 ( aq ) H 2 ( g )
Ca s 2 HCl aq
CaCl2 ( aq ) H 2 ( g )
NB – the reaction between calcium and dilute sulphuric acid starts and then stops due to formation of insoluble coat
of CaSO4 which coats the metal preventing further reaction between the acid and the metal
Alkaline earth metals react by losing two electrons and therefore have valency 2 (divalent) they form compounds with
similar formulae.
The table below shows some compounds of some alkaline earth metals
Radicle Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Barium
Hydroxide Be(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2
Oxide
Sulphide
Chloride
Carbonate
Nitrate
Sulphate
Sulphite
Hydrogen carbonate
Hydrogen sulphate
Uses of alkaline earth metals and their compounds
1. Magnesium is used to make Magnesium hydroxide is used in manufacture of anti-acid medicine
2. Magnesium –aluminium alloy is used to make aeroplane parts
3. Calcium is used to make Hydrated CaSO4 is used in hospitals to set fractured bones
4. CaCO3 is used in extraction of iron to remove impurities and manufacture of cement
5. CaCO3 is used in solvay process to make sodium carbonate
6. CaO is used to raise the soil pH for agricultural purposes
7. Ca(OH)2 is used to prepare ammonia gas in the laboratory
8. Calcium nitrate is used as a nitrogenous fertilizer
9. MgO is used in lining of furnaces
10. Barium sulphate is used in diagnosis of ulcers
11. Barium nitrate is used to produce green flame in fireworks
12. CaCO3 is mixed with oil to make putty
USE OF IONIZATION ENERGIES TO DETERMINE THE GROUP OF AN ELEMENT.
In such questions whereby you are required to use of ionization energies to determine the group of an element you
look for abnormally big difference between two ionizations energies, that gives indication that the electron is being
removed from a stable ion e.g
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study ionization energies in kilojoules per mole and answer the questions below
Element 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
A 1590 2780 4700 6500 8100 12500
B 1010 1900 4900 5000 6300 7300
C 940 4800 6300 9100 12000 16500
D 1680 2010 3400 10900 12400 15900
Identify the group to which each element belongs to
Element A –the difference between the 5th and 6th ionization energy is very high ,that means the sixth
electron is being removed from a stable atom hence A is in group V
Element B is in group II because there is a big difference between 2nd and 3rd, meaning the 3rd electron is
being removed from a stable atom.
Element C is in group I and D is in group III
HALOGENS
These are elements in group VII of the periodic table and include;
Halogen symbol Atomic number Electron arrangement
Fluorine F 9 2.7
Chlorine Cl 17 2.8.7
Bromine Br 35 2.8.18.7
Iodine I 53 2.8.18.18.7
Appearance of halogens
Halogens are coloured and some halogens show different colours depending on the state.
Some adjectives like yellowish ,reddish ,brownish should not be used to describe colour but simply use yellow, red,
brown e.t.c
Fluorine – yellow gas
Chlorine – green gas /pale green gas
Bromine water is yellow,
bromine liquid is red and bromine gas is brown
Iodine – black solid , iodine solution is solution and a purple gas/vapour
The colour of halogens depends on the state as shown above
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS
halogen Symb Atomic Atomic Ionic Melting Boiling Appearance at Electron
ol number radius radius point point room temp. affinity
flourine F 9 0.064 0.136 -238 -188 Yellow gas -322
Chlorine Cl 17 0.099 0.181 -101 -35 Green gas -349
Bromine Br 35 0.114 0.195 -7 59 red liquid -325
Iodine I 53 0.133 0.216 114 184 Black solid -295
Trends in physical properties
The atomic radius and ionic radius increase down the group due to increase in number of occupied energy
levels.
Atomic masses increase down the group due to increase in number of protons and neutrons
The ionic radius is greater than atomic radius because halogens react by gaining electrons which leads to
increase in repulsion force hence increase in the ionic radius
The melting point and boiling point increase down the group due to increase in intermolecular forces of
attraction between molecules with increase in size of the molecules.
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Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid due to increase
in intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules with increase in size of the molecules .
The electron affinity of halogens decrease down the group due to increase in atomic radius and therefore
reactivity decreases down the group.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CHLORINE GAS
It is prepared in the lab by heating concentrated HCl with Manganese (IV) oxide.
4 HCl( aq ) MnO2 s
MnCl2( aq ) 2 H 2O(l ) Cl2( g )
MnO2 is an oxidizing agent we can also use KMnO4 but in this case there is no heating because KMnO4 is a stronger
oxidizing agent
2KMnO4( s ) 16HCl( aq )
2KCl( aq ) 2 MnCl2( aq ) 5Cl2( q ) 8H 2O(l )
Chlorine can also be prepared in the lab by reacting bleaching powder calcium hypochlorite with dilute acids
2Ca NO3 2( aq ) 2 H 2O( l ) Cl2 ( g )
2CaOCl( aq ) 4 HNO3 aq
Chlorine is also prepared by reacting lead (IV) oxide with concentrated HCl(heating is required)
4 HCl( aq ) PbO2 s
PbCl2( s ) 2 H 2O(l ) Cl2( g )
Test for chlorine gas
It will turn moist blue litmus paper red then white
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS
i) Reaction between chlorine and water
Chlorine gas dissolves in water to form a yellow solution called chlorine water, which is a mixture of hydrochloric (HCl)
acid and choric (I) acid (Hypochlorous acid). (HOCl)
Cl2( g ) H 2O(l )
sunlight
HCl( aq ) HOCl( aq )
Chlorine water turns blue litmus red then white
When chlorine water is left in sunlight, it loses its yellow colour and bubbles of a colourless gas are formed
This happens because HOCl is decomposed by sunlight to form HCl and oxygen.
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2 HOCl( aq )
2 HCl( aq ) O2 ( g )
ii) Bleaching action of chlorine
Chlorine dissolves in water to form HCl and HOCl
In presence of sunlight HOCl decomposes to form HCl and Oxygen
Oxygen combines with the dye decolourising it, therefore chlorine bleaches through oxidation
Cl2 ( g ) H 2O(l )
HCl( aq ) HOCl( aq )
2 HCl( aq ) O dye
2 HOCl( aq ) dye
Colourles
The bleaching aaction of chlorine is permanent.
iii) Reaction of chlorine with alkalis
a)with cold dilute NaOH
2 NaOH ( aq ) Cl2 ( g )
NaCl( aq ) NaClO( aq ) H 2O( l )
2 KOH ( aq ) Cl2 ( g )
KCl( aq ) KClO( aq ) H 2O(l )
b)with hot concentrated NaOH
6 NaOH ( aq ) 3Cl2 g
NaClO3( aq ) 5 NaCl( aq ) 3H 2O(l )
6kOH ( aq ) 3Cl2 g
KClO3( aq ) 5KCl( aq ) 3H 2O(l )
iv)Displacement reactions
When chlorine is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide. The green colour of chlorine gas disappears, the
solution turns from colourless to yellow
Cl2( aq ) 2KBr( aq )
2KCl( aq ) Br2(l )
This is due to the formation of bromine liquid which is orange. It is a displacement reaction since chlorine is more
reactive than bromine ,it will displace it from its compounds.
Similarly when chlorine is bubbled into a solution of potassium iodide, the solution turns brown and eventually a black
solid is formed.
Cl2( g ) 2 KI ( aq )
2KCl( aq ) I 2( aq )
v)Reaction with non-metals
-Reaction with hydrogen gas
Hydrogen burns in atmosphere of chlorine forming hydrogen chloride
H 2 ( g ) Cl2 g
2 HCl( aq )
That is how hydrochloric acid is formed in industries
-Reaction with iodine
When chlorine is reacted with iodine it form iodine chloride (amber coloured liquid)
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Cl2( g ) I 2( s )
2ICl(l )
If excess chlorine is used iodine trichloride is formed (yellow solid)
Cl2( g ) I 2( s )
ICl3( s )
-Reaction with Phosphorous
Phosphorous burns with chlorine to form phosphorous (V) chloride and phosphorous (III) chloride
2 P( s ) 5Cl2 ( g )
2 PCl5( g )
2 P( s ) 3Cl2 ( g )
2 PCl3( g )
vi) Reaction with metals
Chlorine reacts with metals to form metal chlorides
Reacting chlorine with iron metal
A stream of dry chlorine is passed over heated iron wool as shown in the diagram below.iron glows red and reacts
with chlorine forming brown crystals of iron (III) chloride. Heating is stopped when iron glows red ,this is because the
reaction is exothermic and the heat generated by the reaction is enough to sustain the reaction temperature.
2 Fe( s ) 3Cl2( g )
2FeCl3( s )
Iron (III) chloride appears in the form of a brown sublimate in the conical flask. This is because the heat from the
combustion tube prevents it from forming there. The excess chlorine is fed to the fume chamber since it is poisonous
or it can be absorbed by bubbling it into a concentrated NaOH solution.TheCaCl 2 prevents the atmospheric moisture
from entering the apparatus. This is because FeCl3 is deliquescent. Instead of CaCl2 you can also use CaO which has
the added advantage of reacting with excess Cl2 ,
AlCl3 can be prepared using the same method but will appear as a white sublimate.
2 Al( s ) 3Cl2 s
2 AlCl3( s )
Sodium metal burns in atmosphere of chlorine forming
sodium chloride
2 Na( s ) Cl2 g
2 NaCl( s )
Similarly halogens burns in heated zinc as shown in the equations below.
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Zn( s ) Cl2 g
ZnCl2 ( s )
Zn( s ) l2 s
Znl2 ( s )
Zn( s ) Br2 g
ZnBr2 ( s )
Magnesium also reacts with chlorine
Mg( s ) Cl2 g
MgCl2( s )
vii)Chlorine as an oxidizing agent
When chlorine gas is bubbled through Iron (II) Sulphate/ Iron (II) Chloride solution the solution turns from green to
yellow, this is because the green Fe2+ are oxidized to yellow Fe3+
2 FeCl2( s ) Cl2( s )
2FeCl3( s )
Uses of halogens
1. Fluorine is used in the manufacture of toothpaste and plastics (polytetraflouride)
2. Fluorine is used to manufacture of chloroflourocarbons (CFC s) used as refrigerants
3. Chlorine is used as a bleaching agent in paper and textile industry
4. Chlorine is used in water treatment plants
5. Chlorine is used in manufacture of antiseptics e.g dettol
6. Chlorine is used in manufacture of PVC polyvinylchloride used to make plastic pipes
7. Chlorine is used in manufacture of hydrochloric acid
8. Bromine is used in lab to test for unsaturation
9. Bromine is uded to make flame retardants
10. Iodine is used to make iodised table salt
11. Iodine is used to make antiseptics e.g tincture of iodine (Mixture of Ethanol and Iodine)
NOBLE GASES
These are elements in group VIII of the periodic and include .helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon. They have a
stable electron arrangement and therefore do not react under normal conditions. Therefore they are the least reactive
elements.
They were previously known as rare gases (inert gases) but these names proved to be misnomer. This is because
argon at 0.93% is more abundant than carbon (IV) oxide at 0.03% .some of the noble gases can be reacted under
extreme conditions e.g.
Xe s 2 F2 g
XeF4 ( s )
But generally noble gases are inert as they have a stable configuration and exist as monoatomic gases (single) atoms.
They have valence zero
Trends in physical properties of noble gases
Element Symbol Appearance Atomic Atomic 1stionizatuion Melting Boiling
At room temp. number radius energy point point
Helium He Colourless gas 2 0.128 2372 -272 -269
Neon Ne Colourless gas 10 0.160 2080 -249 -246
Argon Ar Colourless gas 18 0.192 1520 -189 -186
Krypton Kr Colourless gas 36 0.217 1350 -157 -152
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physical properties of noble gases
Colourless gases at room temperature
Atomic radii increase down the group due to the increase in number of occupied energy levels; this explains
why the1stionizatuion energy also decreases down the group.
Atomic masses increase down the group due to increase in number of protons and neutrons
Noble gases have low Melting point and Boiling point due to weak van der waals forces of attraction between
the atoms, the strength of inter atomic forces of attraction increase with increase in atomic size and that is
why melting and boiling point increase down the group.
Noble gases have the highest ionization energy because they have a stable electron arrangement .
TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES
Noble gases have a stable configuration as their outermost energy level is filled up, hence do no react under normal
conditions.
However as you move down the group ,atoms of noble gases with large atomic radius like krypton and xenon are able
to lose electrons as they are very far from the nucleus and they are weakly attracted by the positive nucleus. That’s
why some compounds of some noble gases are known to exist.e.g Xenon hexafluoride (XeFe6)
USES OF NOBLE GASES
Neon is used in advertisement and disco lights
Argon and krypton is used to fill electric bulbs fluorescent tubes to prevent oxidation of the filament
Helium and argon is used to provide inert atmosphere during welding
Helium is used in filling airships to increase their buoyancy
A mixture of helium and oxygen is used in deep sea diving and mountaineering
Helium is used in filling weather balloons ,(it has replaced hydrogen which is more reactive)
Liquid Helium is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors
Neon is used as a refrigerant
Neon is used in advertisement and disco light as it glows when electric current is passed through it .
Neon is used in television CRO to bring about colour
Xenon is used in cameras to produce flash light
Xenon is used in disco lights
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REVISION QUESTIONS CHEMICAL FAMILIES
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the following reactions.
i. Calcium + water (1 mark)
ii. Sodium + chlorine gas (1 mark)
iii. Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid (1 mark)
2. A science student discovered a new element in the school compound and named it “pelenium”. It was a solid
she could easily cut with a knife. When she put it into water, it reacted vigorously and caught fire forming an
alkaline solution. The symbol of peleunium is is ‘Pe’
i. How did she store it? (1 mark)
ii. Was it a metal or a non-metal? Give a reason (2 marks)
iii. Which chemical family does “Pe” belongs? (1 mark)
iv. What is the valency of the element? (1mk)
v. Write the formulae for its;
a) Chloride (1 mark)
b) Carbonate (1 mark)
3. A piece of sodium metal is put on a basin of water.
a) State the observations (2 marks)
b) Write a word equation for the reaction between sodium metal and water.(1 mark)
c) State the effects of the resulting solution on blue and red litmus paper.(1 mark)
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4. A certain element Z has electron arrangement as 2.8.3
a) What is the formula of the ion (1 mark)
b) What is the oxidation number of its ion (1 mark)
c) When alkali metals are freshly cut, they look shiny and silvery. However after a short while they
tarnish (become dull). Explain (1 mark)
5. The following table shows the physical properties of the first 3 alkali metals.
Element Atomic Atomic Ionic Meilting Boiling Ionization
number radius radius point point energy
Lithium 3 0.133 0.060 180 1330 520
Sodium 11 0.157 0.095 98 890 496
potassium 19 0.203 0.133 64 774 419
a) Explain the trend in: (3 mks)
i. Melting and boiling points.
ii. Atomic and ionic radii
iii. Ionization energy
b) Comment on the thermal and electrical conductivity of alkali metals.(1 mark)
c) Explain why the ionic radius is smaller than the atomic radius (2mks)
6. A student placed a small piece of sodium metal in a trough of water.
a) State and explain the observation made (1 mark)
b) Red and blue litmus papers were added to the resulting solution. State and explain observation
made. (1 mark)
c) Write the balanced equation for the reaction that take place. (1 mark)
d) Give one use of sodium metal (1 mark)
7. (a)Magnesium when burnt in air (oxygen) it forms an oxide, when the oxide was dissolved in water and the resulting
solution was tested using red litmus paper.
i. Write a balanced chemical equation when magnesium is burnt in oxygen. (1 mark)
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ii. State the observation in (a(i) above. (1 mark)
iii. Write a chemical equation when the resulting product (oxide) was dissolved in water (1 mark)
iv. What was the effecting of the resulting solution formed in a(iii) above on litmus papers.
8. (b)Study the following equation and the amount of energy involved
Mg(g) Mg+(g) + e (1st ionization energy = 736kJmol)
Mg+(s) Mg2+(g) +e (2nd ionization energy = 1150KJImol)
i. Comment on the 1 and 2 ionization energy.
st nd (1 mark)
ii. Explain your answer basing on the comment in the b(i) above. (2 marks)
iii. Give one use of magnesium (1 mark)
9. The following set-up was used to collect a certain gas (x) in the laboratory by students in form 2N of Gatondo Girls
High school. Study it and answer the questions.
Gas X
a) Name the gas X (1 mark)
b) How can you test the gas X in the laboratory? (1 mark)
c) Give the colour of the solid form at the end of the experiment. (1 mark)
d) Write a balanced equation to justify your answer in c above. (1 mark)
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e) How did Magnesium burn in steam? (1 mark)
10. Write a chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium with: -
a) Oxygen (1 mark)
b) Chlorine (1 mark)
c) Sulphuric (VI) acid (2 marks)
11. The following set-up was carried out by a student in form 2S in the open air in the presence of sunlight. The
purpose of the experiment was to investigate a certain property of Halogen. Study it and answer the questions.
X
Chlorine gas
a) Which property of Halogens was being investigated? (1 mk)
b) Name gas which was colourless.
c) Chlorine water was yellow. Which substance is responsible for the yellow colour? (1 mk)
d) In presence of light, the chlorine water is decolourised. Explain. (1 mk)
e) Using equations, explain how the gas X is produced at the end of the experiment.
i. (2 mks)
f) Comment on effect of chlorine water on red and blue litmus paper. (1 mk)
g) Give one use of chlorine.
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12. (a)Explain why group 8(noble gas) are unreactive gases (1 mark)
(b)Melting points and boiling points of Noble gas are relatively low. Explain. (1 mark)
13. Explain the trends in the following properties down the alkali metals
a) Melting point and boiling point
b) Ionization energy
c) Atomic radius
d) Ionic radius
14. The table below shows the trend in ionization energy for elements M, N, L .Use it to answer the questions that
follow
Element First Ionization energy(kJ)
M 494
N 519
L 418
a) Which elements have the smallest atomic radius? Give a reason.
b) Which element has the lowest melting point and boiling points?
c) Which elements would be a better conductor of both heat and electricity? Give a reason.
d) Which is the most reactive element
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15. The table below shows the atomic and ionic radii of some elements in a group of a periodic table. The letters used
do not represent the actual symbols of the elements.
Element Atomic radii (nm) Ionic radii (nm)
W 0.112 0.031
X 0.160 0.065
Y 0.197 0.099
Z 0.215 0.113
a) Explain why ionic radius is less than the atomic radius, for each of the elements. (1 mark)
b) Explain the variation in atomic radii down the group (1mark)
c) Identify the most reactive element (1 mark)
16. Study the information below and answer the questions that follow
Element Atomic radii(nm) Ionic radii(nm)
A 0.112 0.031
B 0.160 0.065
C 0.197 0.099
D 0.215 0.113
a) Would the above elements form a metallic or non metallic group? Explain (2mk)
b) Which is the most reactive element, explain (2mks)
17. The table below gives the ionization energy for group one elements
Element I II III IV
Ionization energy(KJ/mol-1) 94 418 519 576
Arrange the elements in order of reactivity starting with the most reactive
18. The table summarizes properties of alkaline earth metals.
Element Atomic Melting Boiling Atomic 1st ionization 2nd ionization
radius point point radius energy energy
Be 4 1280 2770 0.11 900 1800
Mg 12 650 1110 0.16 740 1450
Ca 20 838 1440 0.20 590 1150
Sr 38 768 1380 0.21 550 1060
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a) Account for the trends in each of the following;
Trend in atomic radius
Trend in 1st ionization energies
b) Account for the difference in first and second ionization energies
c) State two applications of alkaline earth metals in the health sector.
19. Study the table below and answer the questions that follow
I J
H M N Q
L
K O P
R
S
a) Explain how the reaction between chlorine and each of the following elements would compare
i. H and L
ii. K and O
b) How does the reactivity of I and M compare, explain?
c) Element X in period 3 and forms ions with formular X3- place it in the grid above
d) Select the element that is least reactive, explain
e) Write the electronic arrangements of the ions of elements H and N
f) What name is given to elements in which P and R belong
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20. Study the table below and answer the questions that follow
Element Atomic number Melting point Formula of oxide
A 11 98 A2O
B 12 65 BO
C 13 660 C2O3
D 14 1410 DO2
E 16 113/119 EO2
F 17 -101 F2O7
G 18 -189 -
a. Which of elements are likely to have no chemical properties?
b. Why does element E have two melting points?
c. Explain why melting point of D is higher than that of F.
d. Which of the oxides can dissolve in both acids and alkalis, explain?
e. How does reactivity of B and C compare? give an explanation
f. Determine the oxidation states of F in its oxides
21. Study the table below and answer the questions that follow
A B C D E F G
M N Q
K H
a. What name is given to group of elements in which :
A and K belong
F and N belong
B and H belong
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b. Which letters represents the list reactive elements
c. On the grid indicate with a tick, the position of element P that is in the third period and would form P3-
d. Write the formula of the compound formed when the following elements react:
I. A and E IV. C and F
II. B and M V. D and N
III. K and E
e. Select one element from the grid which;
I. Forms a monovalent cation VII. Form a basic oxide
II. Forms a divalent cation VIII. Form a soluble basic oxide(alkali)
III. Forms a trivalent cation IX. Is likely to form a covalent bond
IV. Forms a monovalent anion X. Forms an oxide that can react with
both NaOH and HCl
V. Forms a divalent anion
VI. Forms an acidic oxide
22. The grid below represents part of the periodic table. the letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements.
D
T
L Q I Z
G R M E
a) Select the most reactive non-metal
b) Write the formula of the compound formed when D and Z react
c) Select the element that form and ion of charge +2
d) Which element has the least ionization energy
e) Which element is the strongest reducing agent?
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f) Which element has the highest electron affinity
g) Suggest the pH of aqueous solution of chloride of G,and Q
h) Compare the atomic radius of D and G
i) Compare the ionic radius of L and R
j) Compare the atomic mass of T and E
k) Compare the melting point and boiling points of T and E
l) The configuration of ion of W- is 2.8.8, place it on the grid above
m) Compare the atomic radius and ionic radius of G
n) Compare the atomic radius and ionic radius of T
23. Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow (The letters do not represent the
actual symbols of the elements)
Ionization Energy/Mole
Element Electronic configuration 1st ionization energy 2nd ionization energy
A 2.2 900 1800
B 2.8.2 736 1450
C 2.8.8.2 590 1150
a) What chemical family do the elements A, B and C belong? (1 mark)
b) Write the formula and draw the electronic structure of an ion of B(2 marks)
i. Formula
ii. Electronic structure
c) I). What is ionization energy? (1 mark)
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II). Explain the following:
1. The 1st ionization energy is lower than the second ionization energy. (2mk)
2. The 1st ionization energy of B is higher than that of C.(2mk)
d) Write a chemical equation for the reaction of element B with:
1. Air
2. Chlorine gas
3. Steam (water vapour)
24. Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow (the letters do not represent the
actual symbol of the substances)
Substance Melting Point (ºC) Boiling Point (ºC) Solubility in water Density at room
temperature g/cm3
H -117 78.5 Very soluble 0.8
J -78 -33 Very soluble 0.77 x 10-3
K -23 77 Insoluble 1.6
L -219 -183 Slightly soluble 1.33 x 10-3
a) Which substance would dissolve in water and could be separated from the solution by fractional
distillation? Give a reason (2 marks)
b) Which substances is a liquid at room temperature and when mixed with water two layers would be
formed? Explain (2 marks)
c) Which letter represents a substance that is gas at room temperature and which can be collected
i. Over water? Explain (2 marks)
ii. By downward displacement of air? (Density of air is 1.29 x 10-3g/cm3 at room temperature). Explain
(2 marks)
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25. The grid below represents part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent the actual symbols.
A
` B X G P Z E V
J I L R T
D G M
a) Select the most reactive
Non-metal. (1 mark)
Metal. (1mk)
b) Write the formula of the compound consisting of (10mksmk)
I. .D and Z only. II. X and Z only
III. Carbonate of J IV. Oxide of B
V. Hydrogen compound of G VI. chloride of X
VII. Sodium compound of E VIII. Nitrate of B
IX. sulphate of D
X. Aluminium compound of Z
c) Select an element that can form an ion of charge (5mk)
i. +1 iv. +3
ii. -1 v. -3
iii. +2
d) Which element has the least ionization energy? Explain (2 marks)
e) To which chemical family do the following elements belong? (3mk)
a. J
b. E
c. B
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f) When a piece of element G is placed in cold water, it sinks to the bottom and effervescence of a
colourless gas that burns explosively is produced. Use a simple diagram to illustrate how this gas
can be collected during this experiment. (3 marks)
g) An element K has relative atomic mass of 40.2.It has two isotopes of masses 39 and 42. Calculate
the relative abundance of each isotope. (3 marks)
26. The diagram below shows a set up of apparatus for the school laboratory collection of dry chlorine gas.
a) Name (2 marks)
I. Substance Q
II. Suitable drying agent L
b) State a missing condition for the reaction to take place faster. (1 mark)
c) Moist red and blue litmus papers were dipped into the chlorine gas from the above set up. State and
explain the observations made. (2 marks)
d) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in the conical flask (1 mark)
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e) Name two other substances that can be used in place of MnO 2 (2 marks
f) State three uses of chlorine (3 marks)
27. The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms A to F are given in the table below the letters do not
represent the actual symbol of the elements: -
Atoms Protons Neutrons Electrons
A 3 4 2
B 9 10 10
C 12 12 12
D 17 18 17
E 17 20 17
F 18 22 18
Choose from the table the letters that represent:
i. An atom of a metal ...........................................................................
ii. A neutral atom of a non-metal ..........................................................................
iii. An atom of a noble gas ….....................................................................................
iv. A pair of isotopes ......................................................................................................
v. A cation ....................................................................................................................
28. Use information in table below to answer questions that follow.
Ion Electronic configuration of Atomic Number Electronic Group period
ion Configuration of Atom
P2+ 2, 8, ,8
Q- 2, 8
R- 2, 8, 18, 8
S+ 2, 8, 8
T3+ 2, 8
U2+ 2, 8, 18
V2+ 2, 8
W + 2, 8
X+ 2
Y- 2, 8, 8
The letters do not represent actual symbols of the elements. Complete the table by filling in the table
a) Atomic numbers of the elements (5 marks)
b) Electronic configuration of the atoms (5 marks)
c) Group and period of the elements (10 marks)
d) Atomic radius of P is greater than its ionic radius. Explain (2 marks)
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e) Ionic radius of Y is greater than its atomic radius. Explain (2 marks)
f) Element U is more reactive than element V. Explain (2 marks)
g) Write formula of the compound formed between R and S
29. An isotope of element E has 34 neutrons and its mass number is 64. E forms a cation with 28 electrons. Write
the formula of the cation with 28 electrons. Write the formula of the cation indicating the mass and atomic numbers.
30. Write electronic arrangement of the elements in brackets in the following compounds
I. PCl5 (P)
II. PCl3 (P)
III. Cl2O (Cl)
IV. Cl2O7 (Cl)
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CHAPTER THREE: STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) describe the role of the outer electrons in determining chemical bonding
b) explain qualitatively the formation of covalent and ionic bonds
c) illustrate the covalent and ionic bonds using diagrams
d) explain the unique nature of the metallic bonding
e) state the effect of intermolecular forces of attraction on physical properties of substanccs
f) distinguish between bond types on the basis of physical properties of substances
g) compare and explain the changes in bond type across a period
h) select appropriate materials for use based on bond type.
INTRODUCTION
Definition of structure and bonding
Structure – This is the arrangement of particles.
Bonding – These are the forces holding the particles together.
TYPES BONDS AND RELATED STRUCTURE
There are three major types of bonds:
BOND RELATED STRUCTURE
1 Ionic bonding Giant ionic
2 Metallic bonding Giant metallic structure
Atoms Giant covalent/atomic structure
3 Covalent
Molecules Simple molecular structure
Other bonds
Dative /co-ordinate bond Common mistake is that most students make when
answering questions on ionic bonding is that they say
IONIC BONDING AND GIANT IONIC STRUCTURE a bond is ionic because it is formed between metal
Points to note about ionic bonding and non-metals; this assumption is wrong as some
Usually, Ionic bond is formed between metal and a non- substances like AlCl3 have covalent structures. The
metal. expected response in such question is ionic bonding
It involves complete transfer of electrons whereby the involve complete transfer of electrons.
metal loses and the non-metal gains.
The metal loses electrons to form a positively charged ion
(cation) while the non-metal gains to form a negatively charged ion (anion).
The resulting oppositely charged ions attract each other forming a strong ionic bonding E.g. formation of
MgF2.
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F
formation of Magnesium chloride formation of Magnesium oxide
formation of sodium Nitride formation of sodium Flouride
Points to note about ionic bond
All the electrons must be shown not just the outermost electrons
Ionic bonding involves equal sharing of bonding electrons
The best way to draw dot and cross diagram of ionic compound is make sure the like charges are not
placed in the same point , a positive charged ion should be surrounded by negatively charged ions
and negatively charged ion should be surrounded by positively charged ions.
Avoid grouping of ions except in unavoidable cases like drawing of Mg 3N2 and Aluminium oxide
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Compound Dot and cross diagram Compound Dot and cross diagram
NaF CaCl2
Na2O Al2O3
MgO KF
CaS Na3P
Mg3N2 Li2S
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Na2S MgF2
NaOH Mg(OH)2
GIANT IONIC STRUCTURES
Na
Ionic structures are three dimensional in shape, e.g. in NaCl each
is surrounded by six Cl ions and each Cl is surrounded by six Na
ions which are equidistant and this leads to formation of a three
dimensional structure.
Properties of giant ionic structures
They are usually solids at room temperature.
They have high Melting point and boiling point due to strong ionic bonding.
They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents. They are made up of oppositely charged ions
that are attracted by polar water molecules.
They are crystalline.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity in aqueous and molten state but not in solid state. This
is because in aqueous or molten state the ions are mobile but in solid state the ion are fixed.
NB---Common mistakes with students when asked to explain why ionic structure conduct electricity in
aqueous but not in solid state, they state that in solid state there are no ions but in aqueous state there
are mobile ions/ions.
“No ions” is wrong as the ions are there but are immobile/ fixed.
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COVALENT BOND
Covalent bond is formed when there is sharing of bonding electrons.
It is formed mainly when non-metals combine.
There are two types of covalent structures.
Molecular structures
Giant covalent/atomic structure
Molecular structures
Most substances with molecular structures are gases or liquids with low Melting point and boiling point .
In molecular structures, atoms share electrons such that each atom becomes stable e.g.
Compound Structure Compound Structure
H2 H2O
Cl2 SiCl4
O2 HCl
CO2 PCl3
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CH4 NH3
C2H4
C2 H6
N2 PH3
H2S F2
CCl4 Cl2O
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NOCl Nitrosyl Chloride Chloramine NH2Cl
MOLECULAR STRUCTURES AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
Molecular substances like hydrogen gas, chlorine, water, hydrocarbons, carbon (IV) oxide have simple molecular structures.
The molecules are held together by intermolecular forces of attraction.
There are two intermolecular forces;
Van der Waals forces
Hydrogen bonding
Some molecules are held together van der Waals forces only while some other molecules are held together by a
combination of both van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding.
Van der Waals forces
Molecular structures have two types of bonds; the covalent bonds between the atoms which are very strong and
the weak Van der Waals forces between the molecules which are easily broken. That is why substances with
weak van der Waals forces have low melting points and boiling points. The strength/number of van der Waals
forces increase with increase in size of molecules and that’s why melting points and boiling points of halogens
increase down the group with increase in molecular mass/size.
Hydrogen bonding
This type of bonding is found in compounds containing hydrogen and a more electronegative element.
Hydrogen bonding is only form between hydrogen and Flourine and Oxygen .This results in the hydrogen atom
being shared between two adjacent molecules. The hydrogen bonding is stronger than van der Waals forces
and requires an extra energy to break hence compounds with hydrogen bonding have relatively higher melting
and boiling point than their corresponding compounds with only van der Waals forces.
Van der Waals forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules or atoms which exist only when the particles
are close to one another. Hydrogen bonding is stronger than the van der Waals forces but weaker than the covalent
bond. Compounds with hydrogen bonding include water, ethanol sugar, methanol, ethanoic acid and sulphuric
acid. Compounds with hydrogen bonding are soluble in water.
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Points to note
The strength of van der Waals forces increases with increase in molecular mass /size of molecule or atom. That is why
melting point and boiling point increase down the group in halogens and noble gases.
It is also the reason why phosphorous, sulphur and iodine exist as solids at room temperature despite having molecular
structure, this is because they have relative large molecule hence have stronger van de Waals forces.
Molecular structures with hydrogen bonding are soluble in water.
Properties of molecular structures
Soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water.
Low melting point and boiling point due to weak van der Waals forces.
Usually gases or liquids at room temperature due to weak van der Waals forces.
Poor conductors of heat and electricity in both solid and molten state.
Some molecular substances may, however, react with water to form solutions containing ions which do allow
the flow of an electric current. E.g. HCl.
GIANT COVALENT/ GIANT ATOMIC STRUCTURE
This occurs in group IV elements and some of their compounds. In this type of structure, we have atoms which are
covalently bonded to other atoms infinitely throughout the structure. Consequently, this type of structure is very
strong and substances with type of structure are very hard solids which are usually used as abrasives.
Examples of giant covalent structures;
Diamond
Graphite
Silicon
Silicon (IV) oxide
Diamond and graphite are the two allotropes of carbon.
Allotropes are different crystalline forms of the same element in the same physical state.
Allotropy is the existence of different crystalline forms of the same element in the same physical state.
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When defining an allotrope remember that the term crystalline is key to that definition. This is because it
distinguishes the allotropes from other non-crystalline .e.g. amorphous carbons are not allotropes of carbon.
All elements which are allotropic have different melting points and boiling points, so if you are given an element
with two melting points then that element exhibit allotropy.
DIAMOND
In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a giant covalent structure.
In diamond all the valence electrons are involved in bonding leaving no free electron and that is why
diamond does not conduct electricity.
Properties of diamond
It is colourless, transparent and shiny crystalline solid.
It has a high density of 3.51g/cm 3 due to close packing of carbon atoms.
It is the hardest substance due to uniformity of the strong covalent bonds throughout the structure.
It has a high melting point and boiling point due to strong covalent.
Uses of diamond in relation to its structure
For drilling and cutting other metals due to its hardness.
For making ornaments/jewelry because it shines when polished.
GRAPHITE
Graphite is the other allotrope of carbon where each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon
atoms leaving one electron free hence graphite conducts heat and electricity due to presence of delocalized
electrons.
Graphite is made of hexagonal layers which can easily slide over each other and that is why graphite is
used a lubricant
The hexagonal layers are held together by weak van der Waals forces and that is why graphite is soft with
relatively lower boiling point than diamond.
Reasons why graphite is
used an electrode in
electrolysis.
Cheap
Good conductor
Inert
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Uses of graphite in relation to its structure
As an electrode in electrolysis because it conducts electricity.
Make lead pencils because of the hexagonal layers which are held together by weak van der Waals
forces that can easily peel off other when pressed.
As a lubricant due to hexagonal layers held together by weak van der Waals which can easily slide
over each other.
Differences between graphite and diamond
GRAPHITE DIAMOND
Opaque Transparent
Soft-slippery Hard
Conductor Non-conductor
Has both covalent and van der Waals Has uniform covalent bonds
Has hexagonal layers Has tetrahedral shape
Has relatively lower density Has a higher density
Has relatively lower melting point and boiling point Has relatively higher melting point and boiling point
SILICON (IV) OXIDE
In silicon (IV) oxide, each silicon atom is
covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms and
each oxygen atom is covalently bonded to two
silicon atoms. This results to a giant covalent
structure with very high melting point and boiling
point.
SILICON
Silicon in group IV period three and has a giant atomic structure, whereby each silicon is covalently bonded to
other four silicon atoms forming a giant covalent structure with very strong covalent bond.
Properties of giant covalent structures
They have high melting point and boiling point due to strong covalent bond.
They are poor conductors of heat and electricity except graphite, silicon is a semi-conductor.
They are insoluble in water.
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DATIVE/CO-ORDINATE BOND
This is a special type of covalent bond that involves sharing of a lone pair of electrons.
A lone pair means an extra pair of electron is donated by one atom only (unequal sharing).
E.g.
Compound Structure
NH4+
PH4+
CO
O 3
H3O
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NO2Cl
H4 O2
Al2Cl6
Note:
Some compounds have complex structures which comprise of ionic, covalent and dative bond in the same
compounds. E.g. water molecule has covalent bond between O and H atom and hydrogen bonding whereby the
hydrogen atom is bonded by two oxygen atoms between adjacent molecules. Water also has van der Waals forces
between the molecules.
Compounds like ammonium chloride and ammonium hydroxide have covalent, ionic and dative bonds.
a NH3 HCl NH4Cl
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b NH3 H2O NH4OH
METALLIC BONDING
In a metallic structure the atoms are arranged like potatoes in a debe. The delocalized electrons are able to move
freely in the metal ;lattice, the nuclei appear to be immersed in a sea of mobile electrons, this constitutes a mutual
attraction between the delocalized electrons and the positive nuclei. This force of attraction is called electrostatic
forces and leads to a strong metallic bond. The sea of electrons explains its electrical conductivity and its thermal
conductivity.
The sea of electrons bonds the positive nucleus tightly into the lattice and this explains its high melting point. Since
strong forces of attraction exists even in the liquid phase, metals tend to have a wide temperature range over which
they remain liquid.
Properties of giant metallic structures
high boiling point and melting point due to strong metallic bond
Note the strength of metallic bond increases with increase in number of delocalized electrons and decrease
in atomic radius. That is why melting point and boiling point decrease down the group in alkali metals and increase
across the period three from sodium to Alluminium
Electrical conductivity for metal whether in molten or solid states is due to presence of delocalized electrons
good conductors of heat and electricity in both solid and molten state due to presence of delocalized
electrons
insoluble in water
they are shiny
they are malleable and ductile
Explain why the electrical conductivity of metals decreases with increase in temperature.
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As the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the electrons increases and they move in a rapid random motion
and the positive centers vibrate and this interferes with electrical conductivity,
Explain why the MP and BP increase from Na to Al
This is because across the period there is decrease in atomic radius and increase in number of delocalised
electrons from Na to Al and this increases the strength of metallic bonding.
Comparison on structure and bonding.
Bond Structure M.P & B.P Electrical conductivity Solubility in water
Aqueous /molten Solid
Metallic Giant metallic High Good Good Insoluble
Ionic Giant ionic structure high Good poor Soluble
Covalent Giant atomic high Poor poor Insoluble
Simple molecular low Poor poor Insoluble
Exceptions
1. Mercury is metal but has a low melting point and boiling point and is a liquid at room temperature
2. Hydrogen chloride gas has a simple molecular structure but it is soluble in water and is a good conductor
at aqueous state
3. Graphite has a giant atomic structure and is a good conductor of electricity at both solid and liquid state
4. Aluminium chloride has a simple molecular structure and not ionic and it is fairly soluble in organic
solvents as well as in water
5. Silicon is a non metal but has a giant covalent structure with strong covalent bond and that makes it to
have a very high melting point and boiling point
6. Given the Melting point and boiling point you should be able to determine which element is either a gas,
solid or liquid at room temperature.(given particular temperature)
7. Iodine, sulphur and phosphorous have simple molecular structure but are solids at room temperature
8. Sugar ,water ,alkanols and alkanoic acids have hydrogen bonding in addition to van der waals forces and
that makes them to have a higher melting point and boiling poing than the other molecular structures.
Substance is liquid at room temperature if the Melting point is below room temp and the boiling point
is above room temperature(25oC)
Substance is a solid at room temperature if the Melting point is above room temperature
Substance is a gas at room temperature if the boiling point is below the room temperature
Compare electric conductivity of metals and ionic compounds e.g. metal- delocalized electrons, ionic
compounds –mobile ions.
9. For all the questions of chemistry whereby you are told to compare melting point and boiling point you have
to invoke the concept of structure and bonding
10. For ionic compounds they only conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state due to presence of mobile ions
.for metal and graphite electrical conductivity occur both in solid and liquid/molten state due to presence
of delocalized electrons
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‘ POINTS TO NOTE WHEN ANSWERING QUESTIONS ON STRUCTURE AND BONDING
1) when told to compare the melting and boiling points or explain why a substance is as solid and
another is a liquid or gas at a particular temperature you must invoke the concept of structure
and bonding when answering the questions
2) strength of metallic bond is determined by the atomic radius and number of delocalized electrons
,the smaller the atomic radius the stronger the metallic bond that is why metallic bond decrease
down the group and increase across the period in metals,
3) the melting point and Boiling point in molecular structures increase with increase in molecular
mass due to increase in strength of van der waals forces
4) when comparing alkanols and alkanoic acids you say alkanoic acids have high Melting point and
boiling point because they have stronger hvdrogen bonding than alkanols.
examples
a). Explain why CO2 is gas at room temperature while SiO2 is a solid at room temperature,
CO2 has a simple molecular structure with weak van der waals forces while SiO2 has giant
covalent structure with strong covalent bond.
b) Compare the melting point of magnesium and sodium metal
Magnesium has higher melting point than sodium, this is because magnesium has a stronger
metallic bonding than sodium as Mg has a smaller atomic radius and more valence electrons than
sodium.
c)Explain why MgCl2 is a solid at room temperature while SICl4 is a gas at room temperature.
MgCl2 has a giant ionic structure with strong ionic bond while SICl4 has simple molecular structure
with weak van der waals forces
d)Explain why iodine is a solid at room temperature while Chlorine is a gas at room temperature
Iodine has stronger van der waals forces than chlorine due to its larger molecular size.
Nb. Strength of van der waals forces increase with increase in molecular size
Nb; Strength of ionic bond increases with increase in electronegativity and electropositivity of
the combining elements e.g NaF has stronger ionic bond than NaCl because fluorine is more
electronegative than chlorine
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REVISION QUESTIONS ON STRUCTURE AND BONDING
1. Name the type of bonds and related structure that exist in the following substances
Summary of bonds and related structure, complete the table below, more than one type of bond
can exist in a /substance.
1) Substance Bonding (s) Structure
2) Hydrogen Covalent Simple molecular
3) Helium
4) Lithium Metallic Giant metallic
5) Carbon Covalent Giant covalent
6) Nitrogen
7) Oxygen
8) Fluorine
9) Neon
10) Sodium
11) Magnesium
12) Aluminium
13) Silicon
14) Phosphorous
15) Sulphur
16) Chlorine
17) Argon
18) Potassium
19) Calcium
20) Hydrogen chloride Covalent Molecular
21) Sulphur (IV) oxide Covalent, dative Molecular
22) Methane
23) Water Covalent,hydrogen
bonding
24) Sugar
25) Methanol
26) Methanoic acid
27) Magnesium chloride Ionic Giant ionic
28) Sodium oxide
29) Silicon (IV) chloride
30) Magsium sulphide
31) Ammonium ion
32) Hydroxonium ion
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33) Aluminium chloride(dimer )
34) Ozone
35) Sulphur (VI) oxide
36) Carbon (IV) oxide
37) Carbon (II) oxide
38) Diamond
39) Graphite
40) Phosphorous (III) chloride
2. Explain why the boiling point of ethanol is 78oC while that of dimethyl ether is -24oC, although they have
the same molecular mass. (2 marks).
3. Explain why water is a liquid at room temperature while methane is a gas at room temperature (2 marks).
4. Explain why melting and boiling point of halogens increase down the group while it decreases down alkali
metals (2 marks)
5. Explain why chlorine and fluorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid at room temperature
(2 marks)
6. Explain why electrical conductivity of metals decrease with increase in temperature. (2 marks)
7. Explain why Aluminium has a high melting and boiling point than sodium (2 marks)
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8. Ex plain why sodium is soft and magnesium is hard(2mk)
9. name the particles responsible for electrical conductivity in:
I. Molten magnesium chloride(1mk)
II. Molten magnesium(1mk)
III. Magnesium metal(1mk)
10. Strength of metallic bond increases with decrease in atomic radius (2 marks)
11. The table below gives some information about elements represented by letters B, C, D and E. Study
the information and answer the questions that follow:
Element Atomic radii (nm) Melting Point 0C
B 0.152 180
C 0.186 98
D 0.231 64
F 0.244 39
i.Would these elements form part of group or period? Explain. (2 marks)
ii.What does the trend in melting points suggest about the nature of the elements (1 mark)
12. An element X has atomic number 30 while element Y has atomic number 8
a) Write the electron arrangement for X (1 mark)
b) What type of bond would be formed when X and Y react (1 mark)
13. Oxygen and Sulphur belong to group (V) of the periodic table. Explain why there is a big difference in
their melting points (melting point of oxygen is – 2160C while that of Sulphur is 440C.
14. The table below gives the distance between atoms (bond lengths) in halogen molecules and the energies
required to break the bonds (bond energies) between the atoms.
Molecule Bond length (nm) Bond Energy (KJ Mol-1)
Cl – Cl 0.20 240
Br – Br 0.23 195
I–I 0.26 150
At – At 0.29
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a) Predict the energy required to break the At – At bond
b) What is the relationship between bond length and bond energy for the halogen molecules?
15. Using dots (.) and crosses (x) to represent outermost elections, draw a diagram to show the bonding in
CCl4 , PH3 and Sulphur (IV) oxide
16. In terms of structure and bonding, explain why graphite conducts electricity while diamond does not (2
marks)
17. Using dots (.) and crosses (x) to represent electrons draw diagram to represent `the bonding in:
a) CO (1 mark)
b) MgCl2 (1 mark)
18. State why an ammonia molecule (NH3) can combine with H+ to form NH4+ (Atomic numbers: N=7 and H=1) (1
mark)
19. Draw the structure of phosphorous trichloride (PCl3), PH4+ and H4O2+ (3 marks)
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20. Study the table below and answer the questions that follow:
Element Atomic number Relative atomic mass Melting point (oC)
Aluminium 13 27.0 660
Calcium 20 40.0 842
Carbon 12.0 3550
Hydrogen 1.0 -259
Magnesium 12 24.3 650
Neon 10 -249
Phosphorous 15 31.0 44.2 (white),590 (red)
Sodium 23 98
a) Complete the table by filling in this missing atomic numbers and atomic mass. (2 marks)
b) Write the electron arrangement for the following ions (2 marks)
Ca+
P3+
c) What is the melting point of hydrogen in degrees Kelvin? (1 mark)
d) Which of the allotropes of phosphorous has a higher density? Explain (2 marks)
e) The mass numbers of three isotopes of magnesium are 24, 25 and 26. The relative atomic mass of magnesium
is 24.243. What is the mass number of the most abundant isotope of magnesium? Explain (2 marks)
f) Give the formula of the compound formed between aluminium and carbon. (1 marks)
g) Explain the difference in the melting points of magnesium and sodium. (2 marks)
21. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. In terms of structure and bonding, explain the following.
a) Diamond is used in drilling through hard rocks
b) Graphite is used as a lubricant
22. Compound Q is a solid with a giant ionic structure. In what form would the compound conduct an electric current
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23. The following diagrams show the structures of two allotropes of carbon. Study them and answer the questions that
follow
a) Name allotrope (2 marks)
M ................................................................................................
N.................................................................................................
b) Give one use of N (1 mark)
c) Which allotrope conducts electricity? Explain (2 marks)
24. With reference to iodine, distinguish between covalent bonds and Van Der Waals forces
25. Both diamond and graphite have giant atomic structures. Explain why diamond is hard while graphite is
soft (3 marks)
26. Using dots (.) and crosses(x) to represent electrons, show bonding in the compounds formed when the following
elements react: (Si = 14, Na = 11 and Cl = 17) (1 mark)
a) Sodium and chlorine (1 mark)
b) Silicon and chlorine (1 mark)
27. The table below gives some properties of substances I, II, III, and IV. Study it and answer the questions that follow
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Substance Electrical conductivity M.P (0C) B.P (0C)
Solid Molten
I Does not conduct Conducts 801 1420
II Conducts Conducts 650 1107
III Does not conduct Does not conduct 1700 2200
IV Does not conduct Does not conduct 113 440
a) What type of bonding exists in substances I and II (2 marks)
b) Which substance is likely to be sulphur? Explain (2 marks)
28. Distinguish between a covalent bond and a co-ordinate bond (2 marks)
29. In terms of structure and bonding, explain
a) Why the boiling point of chlorine is lower than that of iodine. (2 marks)
b) Why the silicon (IV) oxide is a solid while carbon (IV) oxide is a gas at room temperature (2 marks)
30. The diagram below is a section of a model of the structure of element T.
a) State the type of bonding that exists in T. (1 mark)
b) In which group of the period table does element T belong? Give a reason, (2 marks)
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31. a). The diagram below represents part of the structure of a sodium chloride crystal. The position of one of the
sodium ions in the crystal is shown as
i. On the diagram, mark the position of the other three sodium ions (2 marks)
ii. The melting and boiling points of sodium chloride are 8010C and 14130C respectively. Explain why sodium
chloride does not conduct electricity at 250C, but does so at temperatures between 8010 C and 14130C
(2 marks)
b). Give a reason why ammonia gas is highly soluble in water (2 marks)
32. The table below gives information about elements A1A2A3, and A4
Element Atomic Atomic Ionic radius (nm)
Number Radius (nm)
A1 3 0.134 0.074
A2 5 0.090 0.012
A3 13 0.143 0.050
A4 17 0.099 0.181
a) In which period of the periodic table is element A2? Give a reason (2 marks)
b) Explain why the atomic radius of:
(i) A1 is greater than that of A2; (2 marks)
(ii) A4 is smaller than its ionic radius (2 marks)
c) Select the element which is in the same group as A3 (1 mark)
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d) Using dots (.) and crosses(x) to represent outermost electrons. Draw a diagram to show the bonding in the
compound formed when A1 reacts with A4 (1 mark)
33. In terms of structure and bonding, explain why the melting point of oxygen is much lower than that of sodium.(3
marks)
34. Using dots (.) and crosses (X) ,show bonding in:
a) The compound formed when nitrogen reacts with fluorine (Atomic numbers F= 9, N=7)
b) Sodium oxide (Atomic numbers Na = 11,O= 8)
35. a). Using electrons in the outermost energy level, draw the dot (.) and cross (x) diagram for the molecules H2O and
C2H4. (H = 1, C = 6, O = 8) (2 marks)
i. H 2O
ii. C 2H 4
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b). The formula of a complex ion is Zn(NH3)42+. Name the type of bond that is likely to exist between zinc
and ammonia in the complex ion.
36. Use the information in the table below to answer the questions that follow. The letters do not represent
the actual symbols of the elements.
Element Atomic number Melting point (0C)
R 11 97.8
S 12 650.0
T 15 44.0
U 17 -102
V 18 -189
W 19 64.0
a) Give the reasons why the melting point of:
i) S is higher than that of R (2 marks)
ii) V is lower than that of U
b) How does the reactivity of W with chlorine compare with that of R with chlorine? Explain,
(2 marks)
c) Write an equation for the reaction between T and excess oxygen (1 mark)
d) Give one use of element V (1 mark)
37. The table below gives the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in particles A, B, C, D, E, F and
G.
Particle Protons Electrons Neutrons
A 6 6 6
B 10 10 12
C 12 10 12
D 6 6 8
E 13 10 14
F 17 17 18
G 8 10 8
i. Write the formula of the compound formed when E combines with G. (1 mark)
ii. Name the type of bond formed in (iii) above (1 mark)
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iii. How does the radii of C and E compare? Give a reason. (2 marks)
iv. Draw a dot (.) and cross (x) diagram for the compound formed between A and F. (1 mark)
v. Why would particle B not react with particle D? (1 mark)
38. The diagram below shows the bonding between aluminum chloride and ammonia.
H Cl
H N Al Cl
H Cl
a) Name the types of bonds that exist in the molecule (1 mark)
b) How many electrons are used for bonding in the molecule? (1 mark)
c)
39. Ammonium ion has the following structure:
Label on the structure
a) Covalent bond; (1 mark
b) Coordinate (dative) bond (1 mark)
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CHAPTER FOUR: TRENDS IN PROPERTIES ACROSS PERIOD THREE
The elements in period 3 are Sodium, Magnesium, Aluminium, Silicon, Phosphorous, Chlorine, Argon
They each have three occupied energy levels and hence belong to period three.
The elements show a gradual change in both their physical and chemical properties
A) TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Table showing summary of physical properties of period three elements
Element Proton Atomic Appearance Bond structure Electrical Melting Boiling
numb radius conductivity point (K) point(K)
er
Sodium 11 0.190 Grey solid Metallic Giant Good 371 1156
metallic
magnesium 12 0.160 Grey solid Metallic Giant Good 922 1380
metallic
Aluminium 13 0.125 Grey solid Metallic Giant Good 933 2740
metallic
Silicon 14 0.117 Black solid covalent Giant Semi- 1683 2628
atomic condctor
phosphorus 15 0.110 White solid covalent molecular 44 280
Red solid (white)
590(red)
Sulphur 16 0.104 Yellow solid covalent molecular Poor 113 718
119
Chlorine 17 0.099 Green- covalent molecular Poor 172 238
yellow gas
Argon 18 0.197 Colourless covalent molecular Poor 84 87
gas
Trends in physical properties across period three
i)The atomic radius
The atomic radius decreases across the period due to increase in number of protons that leads to increase in
nuclear force of attraction of the outermost electrons towards the nucleus hence decreasing the atomic radius,
therefore sodium has the largest atomic radius.
ii)Trend in bond type
Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium have giant metallic structure with strong metallic bonding.
Silicon has giant atomic/covalent structure with strong covalent bonding
Phosphorous, Sulphur, chlorine and argon have simple molecular structure with weak van der waals
between molecules.
iii)Melting Points and Boiling Points
Sodium, magnesium and Aluminium
Sodium, magnesium and Aluminium are all metals. They have metallic bonding with giant metallic structure, in
which positive metal ions are attracted to delocalized electrons. Going from sodium to Aluminium:
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,the atomic radius decreases and the number of delocalized electrons increases from 1 to 3 ... so the strength of
the metallic bonding increases across the period hence melting points and boiling points increase.
Silicon
Silicon is a metalloid (an element with some of the properties of metals and some of the properties of non-metals).
Silicon has a giant covalent structure with strong covalent bonding. in which each silicon atom is covalently-bonded
to four other silicon atoms therefore Silicon has a very high melting point and boiling point because:
All the silicon atoms are held together by strong covalent bonds.
Phosphorus, Sulphur, Chlorine and Argon
These are all non-metals, and they exist as small, separate molecules. Phosphorus, Sulphur and chlorine exist
as simple molecules, with strong covalent bonds between their atoms. Argon exists as separate atoms (it is
monatomic).
Their melting and boiling points are very low because:
The molecules are held together by van der Waals’ forces between the molecules which are very weak
bonds and easily broken so little energy is needed to overcome them and they have low melting points
and boiling points.
Sulphur has a higher melting point and boiling point than the other three because:
Phosphorus exists as tetratomic P4 molecules, Sulphur exists as octaatomic S8 molecules , chlorine
exists as diatomic Cl2 molecules and argon exists as monatomic Ar atoms . the strength/number of
the van der Waals’ forces decreases as the molecular mass/ size of the molecule decreases and
therefore the melting points and boiling points decrease in the order S8 > P4 > Cl2 > Ar
element atomicity of the molecule molecuar mass
Sulphur Octa atomic (s8) 256
Phosphorus Tetra atomic ( p4) 128
chlorine diatomic ( cl2) 71
Argon Monoatomic 40
Sample practice questions
1. Explain why chlorine has a higher melting point than argon
Chlorine is diatomic molecule while argon is monatomic; therefore chlorine has stronger/more van
der waals forces than argon
2. Explain why phosphorous is a solid while chlorine is a gas at room temperature
Phosphorous is tetra atomic while chlorine is diatomic ,hence phosphorous having a higher molecular
mass has stronger/more van der waals forces than chlorine.
3. Explain why sulphur has a higher boiling point than phosphorous
Sulphur exist as octatomic molecule while phosphorous exist as tetratomic , therefore sulphur has a
stronger/more van der waals forces than phosphorous
4. Explain why magnesium has a higher melting point than sodium
Magnesium has a stronger metallic bonding than sodium because it has more delocalized electrons
than sodium
5. compare the reactivity of magnesium and sodium with chlorine
Sodium reacts more vigorously with chlorine than magnesium, this is because sodium has a larger
atomic radius hence more electropositive /loses its outer electron more easily than magnesium.
6. Elements P,Q.S have atomic numbers 11,12,and 13 respectively .which element has the highest
melting point, explain
This is because S has the smallest atomic radius and highest number of delocalized electrons
hence the strongest metallic bonding.
7. Explain why silicon has the highest melting point and boiling point
It has a giant covalent structure with strong covalent bonding in which each silicon atom is covalently-
bonded to four other silicon atoms, which requires a lot of energy to break
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Common errors with students
When answering questions on bonding or reactivity, or comparing melting point and boiling points, the following
must be considered.
If comparison involves two elements then use a comparative(second degree of comparison ) term like more
easily, stronger, lesser ,more reactive ,higher melting point, more delocalized e.t.c refer to quiz 1-5 above , if
those comparative terms are not used the candidate will not score. For example is a candidate writes
magnesium has a strong metallic bonding than sodium ,he/she will not score ,the correct term is stronger not
strong
If comparison involves more than two elements of substances use a superlative e.g highest strongest/
greatest/least/smallest ,if such terms are not used then the candidates does not score refer to quiz 6
When comparing metallic bonding it is wrong to say metallic bonding increase with increase in valence electrons
,the correct term should be more delocalized electrons not valence electrons this is because not all elements
with valence electrons form metallic bonding
iv)Electrical Conductivity Across the Period
Sodium, magnesium and Aluminium are good conductors of electricity due to presence of delocalized electrons
but conductivity increase across the period due to increase in number of delocalized electrons
Silicon is a semi-conductor
Phosphorus, Sulphur, chlorine and argon are poor conductor as they don’t have delocalized electrons.
B:TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Metals
Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium are metals and their reactivity decrease across the period due to decrease in
atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge which increase the attraction between the outermost electrons and
nucleus. The number of electrons increase hence more electrons require more energy to remove, hence sodium
having the largest atomic radius and loses one electron to become stable is the most reactive while Aluminium has
the least atomic radius and loses three electrons to become stable is the least reactive
SILICON
Silicon has four electrons in the outermost energy levels.
Usually silicon does not form ionic compounds because it will require a lot of energy to lose or gain four
electrons, therefore forms compounds through covalent bonding,
PHOSPHORUS, SULPHUR AND CHLORINE,
Chlorine is the most reactive, followed by phosphorous then sulphur, this is attributed to decrease in forces holding
the molecules together. Therefore chlorine having relatively smaller atomic radius and requiring only one electron
to be stable is the most reactive.
Argon has a stable configuration and therefore does not react
i) Reaction with oxygen
Sodium and Magnesium; refer to chemical families and air and combustion
Aluminium
Aluminium when heated in oxygen react to form Aluminium oxide is unreactive, this oxide layer prevents
any further reaction, that’s why Aluminium is used to make cooking vessels like sufurias
4Al (s ) 3O2 g
2Al 2O 3(s )
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Non metals
Silicon, Phosphorus and sulphur react with oxygen to form corresponding oxides but chlorine and argon don’t
react with oxygen.
Phosphorus burns in air with a white flame forming a mixture of Phosphorous (V)oxide and Phosphorous (III)oxide,
the oxides dissolve in water forming acidic solutions.
Phosphorus Phosphorous V oxide
Oxygen
P4 s 5O2 g
P4O10 ( s )
Phosphorus + Oxygen Phosphorous (III)oxide
P4 s 3O2 g
2 P2O3( s )
Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue flame forming Sulphur (IV)oxide
Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur IV oxide
S s O2 g
SO2 g
Silicon + Oxygen Silicon (IV)oxide
Si s O2 g
SiO2 g
ii) Reaction with Water
Sodium and magnesium refer to chemical families
Aluminium does not react with cold water or steam due to presence a coating of aluminium oxide, which prevents
any further reaction.
Non-metals do not react with water therefore Silicon, Phosphorus and sulphur don’t react with water. But
chlorine reacts with water forming chlorine water which is a mixture of hydrochloric (HCl) acid and choric (I) acid
(Hypochlorous acid). (HOCl)
Cl2( g ) H 2O(l )
HCl( aq ) HOCl( aq )
iii) Reaction with acids
Magnesium reacts with both dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid forming salt and hydrogen gas
Mg( s ) H 2 SO4 aq
MgSO4( aq ) H 2( g )
Mg( s ) 2 HCl aq
MgCl2( aq ) H 2( g )
Aluminium does not readily react with dilute acids due to presence a coating of Aluminium oxide, however
on removing the coating of Aluminium the metal reacts
2 Al( s ) 3H 2 SO4 aq Al2 SO4 3( aq ) 3H 2 ( g )
2 Al( s ) 3HCl aq AlCl3( aq ) 3H 2 ( g )
The reaction between sodium and dilute acids is explosive and should never be tried. Silicon, Phosphorus, silicon
and sulphur do not react with dilute acids
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TRENDS IN STRUCTURE AND BONDING OF COMPOUNDS OF PERIOD THREE ELEMENTS
Summary in properties of oxides
Oxides Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6, P4O10 SO2
Structure Giant ionic structure Giant atomic Simple molecualr
Bonding Ionic bond Covalent Weak van-der waals forces
of attraction
M.P 1280 2900 2040 1610 24, 580 -17
Acidic/basic Basic amphoteric acidic
(nature)
Reaction with Alkaline Weakly alkaline Insoluble pH 7 Acidic pH 1 or 2
water solution pH pH 9-10
=12-14
i) Bonding and trends in melting point of the oxides
1. Oxides of Na, Mg and Al form giant ionic structures with strong ionic bonding
Large amount of energy is needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
the ions and thus they have high melting points.
2. SiO2 forms giant covalent structure
Large amount of energy is needed to overcome the strong covalent bonding between the Si and O
atoms and thus SiO2 has high melting point.
3. Oxides of P and S
These form simple molecular structures with molecules held together by weak Van der Waals’ forces,
small amount of energy is needed to overcome the weak Van der Waals’ forces of attraction between
the molecules and thus they have low melting points.
ii)Nature of oxides across period three
Na2O. MgO are basic oxides
Al2O3 is amphoteric and react with both acids and alkalis
SiO2 , P2O5, and SO2 are acidic and react with alkalis
iii)Solubility in water
Na2O and MgO dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions; Na2O is very soluble while MgO is slightly
soluble in water.
Al2O3 does not dissolve in water
Oxides of non-metals dissolve in water to form acidic solution; however, silicon (IV) oxide does not
dissolve in water
Phosphorous V oxide Water
Phosphoric V acid
P2O5( s ) 3H 2O(l )
2 H 3 PO4 ( aq )
Phosphorous III oxide Water
Phosphoric III acid
P2O3( s ) 3H 2O(l )
2 H 3 PO3( aq )
Sulphur IV oxide Sulphuric IV acid
Water
SO2 ( g ) H 2O(l )
H 2 SO3( aq )
SiO2 ( g ) H 2O(l )
H 2 SiO3( aq )
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iv)Reaction with acids
Na2O and MgO being basic react with acids ,to form salt and water
Al2O3 react with both acids and alkali therefore is said to be amphoteric oxide.
Oxides of non-metals do not react with acids but react with alkalis
CHLORIDES OF ELEMENTS IN PERIOD THREE
Trends in properties in bond types and properties Chlorides of elements of period 3
Chlorides NaCl MgCl2 ACl3 SiCl4 PCl5 SCl2
Physical state Solid Solid solid liquid liquid gas
M.P ( C)
o 801 714 sublimes -70 sublimes -78
B.P (oC) 1437 1412 sublimes 57 sublimes 59
Structure Giant ionic Giant ionic molecular molecular molecular molecular
Bond type Ionic Ionic covalent covalent covalent covalent
pH of solution 7 7 2 3 2 3
Solubility on Soluble Soluble hydrolyses hydrolyses hydrolyses hydrolyses
water
Solubility in water and nature of solutions
NaCl, MgCl2 have giant ionic structure and dissolve in water to form neutral solutions
AlCl3 have simple molecular structure and is soluble in water and fairly soluble in organic solvents
AlCl3 undergo hydrolysis in water to form acidic solution,
NB. Salt of ions with charge density of +3 and above e.g. Al3+, Fe3+ undergo hydrolysis in water to
form acidic solution. That is why when Na2CO3 is added to a solution of Al2SO4/AlCl3 / FeCl3 there
is effervescence and also when a blue litmus paper is inserted it turns from blue to red.
PCl3 PCl5 , SiCl4 dissolve in water forming acidic solutions The chlorides of phosphorous and silicon
PCl3 s 3H 2O(l )
3HCl( g ) H 3 PO3 fume in air as they hydrolyse in presence of
moisture to form HCl gas which appear as
PCl5( s ) 4 H 2O(l )
5HCl( g ) H 3 PO4( aq )
white fumes
SiCl4 (l ) 2 H 2O(l )
SiO2( s ) 4 HCl( g )
Trends in bond types and melting point and boiling points of chlorides
NaCl and MgCl2 have giant ionic structure with strong ionic bond hence have high melting point and boiling
point. NaCl have higher boiling point than MgCl2 because sodium has a larger atomic radius and therefore is
more electropositive than magnesium hence forms a stronger ionic bond than magnesium.
AlCl3 forms a dimer molecule whereby the molecules are held together by weak van der waals hence easily
broken require less energy to break, hence low melting points and boiling points.
SiCl4, PCl5 and SCl2 have molecular structures with weak van der waals forces hence have low melting point
and boiling points.
SUMMARY OF TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS DOWN AND ACROSS
PERIODIC TABLE
1) Down the group
a. Atomic radius
For all elements the atomic radii increase down the group due to increase in number of occupied energy
levels down the group
b. Atomic mass
For all elements the atomic mass increase down the group due to increase in number of protons and
neutrons down the group
c. Reactivity
Trend in reactivity down the group depends on whether it is a metal or non-metal
I. For metals
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Reactivity: Increases down the group due to the weakening of attraction between the positive nuclei and the outer
most electrons with increase in atomic radii.
Ionization energy
Decease down the group due to decrease in attraction between the positive nucleus and outermost electrons with
increase in atomic radius.
Electropositivity
Increase down the group due to decrease in attraction between the positive nucleus and outermost electrons with
increase in atomic radius
Note: strongest reducing agent/ most electropositive element/most reactive metal /element with least
ionization energy -this is an element that easily loses electron. Here you select the metal with the largest atomic
radius and with fewer electrons in the outermost energy level. Mostly group one
II. For non metals
Reactivity of non metals decreases down the group due to decrease in effective nuclear attraction and shielding
effect with increase in atomic radii/ number of occupied energy levels.
d. Melting point and boiling point:
I. For metals
M.P and B. P decreases down the group due to decrease in strength of metallic bonding with increase in atomic
radii, increase in atomic radii leads to decrease in attraction between outermost electrons and positive nucleus.
II. For non metals
Melting point and boiling point increases down the group due to increase in strength of Vander Waals forces
with increase in molecular mass/atomic radius.
Electron affinity
Electron affinity decrease down the group with increase in atomic radius hence increased shielding effect .
2. ACROSS THE PERIOD
a. Atomic radius
Generally for all elements the atomic radius decreases across the period due to increase in number of protons that
attracts the outermost electrons more strongly towards the nucleus, hence decreasing the atomic radius.
a. Reactivity
In Metals
Reactivity decreases across the period due to increase in the number of electrons to be lost and also decrease in
atomic radii.
Ionization energy
Increase across the period due to increase in attraction between the positive nucleus and outermost electrons with
decrease in atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge.
Electropositivity
Decrease across the period due to increase in attraction between the positive nucleus and outermost electrons
with decrease in atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge.
Melting and boiling point increase across the periods due to increase in the strength of metallic bond with
increase in delocalized electrons and decrease in atomic radius.for non metals it depends on the size of the
molecule eg. S›P›Cl›Ar
Electric conductivity increase from sodium to Aluminium due increase in number of delocalized electrons.
Silicon is a metalloid while the rest of non metals are poor conductors of electricity.
d) Strongest oxidizing agent/ most electronegative element /most reactive non-metal /-, this is usually the
non-metal with the smallest atomic radius and requires fewer electrons to be stable, mostly halogens
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Comparison between structures
All metals have giant metallic structures with strong metallic bond
All compounds of metals have giant ionic structure with strong ionic bond except Aluminium
chloride which has simple molecular structure with weak van der waals forces
All non-metals and their compounds have simple molecular structure with weak van der waals
forces except silicon and silicon (IV) oxide which have giant covalent structure with strong
covalent bond
Examination content
Compare giant metallic structure vs simple molecular structure
Compare giant covalent structure vs simple molecular structure
Compare giant ionic structure vs simple molecular structure
Compare simple molecular structures with hydrogen bonding and those without
Comparing simple molecular structures vs molecular structure (look size of molecule ,atomicity
of molecule
Comparing metallic bond (look for atomic radius (for same group or number of delocalized
electrons (for same period )
REVISON QUESTIONS ON MIXED CONCEPTS
This area tests on structure of atom, structure and bonding chemical families and trends across the period
1. Study the table below to answer the questions that follow. The letters do not show the actual symbols of the
elements.
Element B C D E F G H I J K
Atomic number 7 8 19 15 2 9 6 16 12 11
Atomic mass 14 16 39 31 4 19 12 32 24 23
Melting point - - 63.7 44 -272 -223 vary 113 669 98
a) Select two elements with oxidation states of -2 (1 mark)
b) Which elements represent
i. the most powerful oxidizing agent (1 mark)
ii. the most powerful reducing agent(1 mark)
c) Which element has the highest ionization energy (1 mark)
d) Select two elements when reacted form a compound that conduct electricity in both molten and aqueous
state.(1 mark)
e) Select two elements when reacted form a compound that dissolves in water to form acidic solution (1mk)
f) Using dots (.) and crosses (X) to represent electrons draw diagrams showing bonding between B and J
(1mk)
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g) Explain why for some elements the mass number is not twice the atomic number (1 mark)
h) Explain why the melting point of element K is higher that of element D (2 marks)
i) Describe how the solid mixture of sulphate of D and PbSO4 can be separated (3 marks)
element Atomic number Melting point
L 11 97.8
K 12 650
M 13 660
N 14 1410
Q 17 -101
R 19 63.7
2. Study the information in the table below and answer the question that follow. the letters do not represent the
symbols of the elements.
a) Write the electronic arrangement for ions formed by elements M and Q
M………………………………………
Q…………………………………………
b) Select an element which is:
i. the most electronegative element
ii. a poor conductor of electricity
c) In which period of the periodic table does element Q belong? Explain
d) Compare the re-activity of element R and L. Explain your answer
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e) Using dots (•) and crosses (x) to represent outmost electrons; show bonding in the compound formed
by elements M and Q.
f) Explain why the melting point of element M is higher than that of element L
g) Write an equation for the reaction that would occur between K and water
h) In terms of structure and bonding explain why there is a large difference in the melting points of N and
other elements.
3. Study the table below representing part of periodic table and answer the questions that follow. The letters do
not represent the actual symbols of the elements
F P H G H I
Q K J L M
N X-Z
a) What type of bond would you expect in the compound formed between H and F, explain (2 marks)
b) Which of the elements J and M will have a greater atomic radius? Explain.(2 marks)
c) Elements F and N are in the same group of periodic table, how do their atomic radius compare? Explain
(2 marks)
d) An element W has atomic number 15. indicate the position it would occupy in the table above (2 marks)
e) What name is given to elements X-Z (2mks)
f) Why is J used in electric cables where Q is not (2 marks)
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g) Element K is termed as a metalloid, what does the term metalloid mean (2 marks)
h) How would you expect reactivity of H and M to compare (2 marks
i) Compare the atomic mass of N and F (2 marks)
4. (a) The table below shows the atomic numbers of elements of the periodic table represented by letter J to Q.
The letters are not the actual chemical symbols for the elements
Element J K L M N P O Q
Atomic number 2 7 8 10 11 12 13 14
(i) Select two elements which belong to:
I The same period of the periodic table (1 mark)
II The same group of the periodic table
(ii) Select the element which (1 mark)
I Will form a divalent anion
II Reacts most vigorously with water
(iii) Has the greatest tendency to form covalent bond. Explain(2mks)
(b). The boiling points of some chloride are shown in the table below:
Group I II III IV V VI VII
Chloride LiCl Chloride of W BCl3 CCl4 NCl3 OCl2 FCl
B.P. (0C) 1350 487 12 77 71 2 -101
Chloride Nacl Mgcl2 AlCl3 Chloride of X PCL3 SCl2 Cl2
B.P. (0C) 1465 1418 Sublimes at 57 74 59 -35
180
(i) What is the most likely formulae for the chlorides of W and X?
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(ii) Select two chlorides from the table which are the most ionic. Explain why the two selected chloride are
the most ionic.
(iii) Would you expect group VIII elements of the periodic table to form chlorides? Explain the answer (1
mark)
5. Metal p is a group 2 element in the periodic table and it lies below Q in the same group
a) Explain how the reactivity of metal P and Q with bromine compares (1 mark)
b) Given that the atomic number of Q is 12, determine the atomic number of P. Show how you arrive at your
answer (2 marks)
6. Element E has atomic number 15.
(a) Write the electron arrangement for an atom (1 mark)
(b) Explain why E forms a chloride which is a liquid of low boiling point (1 mark)
7. Element J whose atomic numbers is 31 has two isotopes. The table below shows the mass numbers and
the relative abundance for each isotope
Mass number Relative abundance (%)
69 60.4
71 39.6
(a) Determine the number of neutrons in the isotope with mass 69 (1 mark)
(b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of element J (2 marks)
Element Atomic No. M.P.0(C) B.P. 0(C) Ionic radius (nm)
A 11 98 890 0.095
B 12 650 1110 0.065
C 13 660 2470 0.050
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D 14 1410 2360 0.41
E 15 44.2, 590 280 0.034, 0.212
F 16 113, 119 445 0.184
G 17 -101 -35 0.181
H 18 -189 -186
8. Study the data in the table below and answer the questions that follow. The letters do not represent actual
symbols of the elements
a) i). Write electronic arrangement for the atoms represented by letters B and F (2 marks)
ii). State the nature of the oxides of the elements represented by B and F (1 mark)
b) Why does the element represented by letter E have two values of melting points? (1 mark)
c) Explain the following observations in terms of structure and bonding
i. There is an increase in boiling point from A to C
ii. Element D has a high boiling point
iii. F has a higher boiling point than G.
d) Explain the difference in ionic radius between elements represented by letters A and G (2 marks)
e) Write the formulae and the electronic arrangement of the two ions E whose ion radius are shown in the table
9. Complete the table below
Isotope Number of
Protons Neutrons Electrons
59
K
27
10. The electron arrangement of ions X3+ and Y2- are 2, 8 and 2, 8, 8 respectively
(a) Write the electron arrangement of the elements X and Y (2 marks)
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(b) Write the formula of the compound that would be formed between X and Y (1 mark)
11. With reference to its atomic number of one, explain why hydrogen can be placed in either group I or VII of
the period table (1 mark)
12. The table below shows some properties of substances E, F, G and H
Substance Action with water Melting point Thermal conductivity
E Un reactive High Poor
F Reactive High Poor
G Unreactive High Good
H Unreactive Low Good
Select the substance that would be most suitable
a) For making a cooking pot (1 mark)
b) As a thermal insulator (1 mark)
13. The table below gives the atomic numbers of elements W, X, Y and Z. The letters do not represent the actual
symbols of the elements.
Element W X Y Z
Atomic number 9 10 11 12
a) Which one of the elements is less reactive? Explain (2 marks)
b) Which two elements would react most vigorously with each other? (1 mark)
c) Give the formula of the compound formed when the elements in b (i) above react (1 mark)
14. An element Y has the electronic configuration 2.8.5
a) Which period of the periodic table does the element belong? (1 mark)
b) Write the formula of the most suitable anion formed when element Y ionizes (1 mark)
c) Explain the difference between the atomic radius of element Y and its ionic radius (1 mark)
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15. Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow. The letters do not represent
the actual symbols of the elements.
Element Atomic number Melting point Formula of chloride Melting point of chloride
G 11 98 GCl 801
H 12 650 HCl2 715
J 14 1410 JCl-804 -70
K 16 113 K4Cl2 -80
L 20 851 LCl2 780
a) Which elements are metals? Give a reason (2 marks)
b) Write the formula of the compound formed when element H reacts with element K (1 mark)
c) Explain why the melting point of J is higher than that of K (2 marks)
d) What is the oxidation state of J in its chloride? (1 mark)
e) How does the melting point of the fluoride of G compare with that of its chloride? Explain (2 marks)
f) Reactivity of H and L with water compare? Give an explanation (2 marks)
16. The chart below is an outline of part of the periodic table.
a) i). With the help of vertical and horizontal lines, indicate the direction of increasing metallic nature of the
elements (2 marks)
ii). Which types of elements are represented in the shaded area? (1 mark)
b) Element A is the same group of the periodic table as chlorine. Write the formula of the compound formed
when A reacts with potassium metal.
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17. Study the information in the table and answer the questions that follow
Ion Electronic arrangement Ionic radius
Na+ 2.8 0.095
K + 2.8.8 0.133
Mg2+ 2.8 0.065
a) Explain why the ionic radius of (1 mark)
i. K+ is greater than that of Na+
ii. Mg2+ is smaller than that of Na+
18. An oxide of element F has the formula F2O5
a) Determine the oxidation state of F (1 mark)
b) In which group of the periodic- table is element F? (1 mark)
19. Explain why the reactivity of group (VII) elements decreases down the group
20. . The table below shows the first ionization energies of elements B and C.
Element Ionisation energy KJ mol-1
B 494
C 736
What do these values suggest about the reactivity of B compared to that of C? Explain (2 marks)
21. Four metal F, G, H and J were each separately added to cold water, and steam. The table below is a summary of the
observations made and the formulae of the hydroxides formed.
Metal Cold water Hot water Steam Formula of Hydroxide
F Reacts slowly Reacts fast Reacts very fast F(OH)2
G No reaction No reaction No reaction -
H Fast Reacts very fast Reacts explosively HOH
J No reaction Reacts slowly Reacts fast J(OH)2
a) Which two elements are likely to be in the same group of the periodic table? (2 marks)
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b) Arrange the metals in the order of their reactivity starting with the most reactive (2 marks)
22. State two factors which determine the stability of an isotope (2 marks)
23. The table below shows properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine. Complete the table by giving the missing
information in (i), (ii), and (iii) (3 marks)
Element Formula Colour and state room temperature Solubility
Chlorine Cl2 i)………………… Soluble
Bromine Br2 Brown liquid ii)………………
Iodine l2 iii) ………………. Slight soluble
24. Use the information in the table below to answer the questions that follow. (The letters do not represent the
actual symbols of the elements)
Element B C D E F
Atomic number 18 5 3 5 20
Mass number 40 10 7 11 40
a) Which two letters represent the same element? Give a reason (2 marks)
b) Give the number of neutrons in an atom of element D (1 mark)
25. The table below gives some information about elements I, II, III and IV which are in the same group of the
periodic table. Use the information to answer the questions that follows.
Element First Ionisation energy (kjmol-1) Atomic Radius (nm)
I 520 0.15
II 500 0.19
III 420 0.23
IV 400 0.25
State and explain the relationship between the variations in the first ionization energies and the atomic radii. (3
marks)
26. a). An atom Q can be represented as
52
24 Q
What does the number 52 represent? (1 mark)
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b). Study the information in the table below and answer the equations that follow. Letters are not actual symbols
Element Electronic Arrangement of stable ion AtomicRadius(nm) IonicRadius(nm)
N 2.8.8 0.197 0.099
P 2.8.8 0.099 0.181
R 2.8 0.160 0.065
S 2.8 0.186 0.095
T 2 0.152 0.068
U 2.8 0.072 0.136 i. Write the
formula of the compound formed when N reacts with P. (atomic numbers are N = 20; P = 17) (1 mark)
ii. Identify the elements which belong to the third period of the periodic table. Explain (2 marks)
iii. Which of the element identified in b (ii) above comes first in the third period? Explain ( 2 marks)
iv. Select two elements which are non- metals (1 mark)
27. a). The atomic numbers of elements C and D are 19 and 9 respectively. State and explain the electrical conductivity
of the compound CD in:
i. Solid state (1 ½ marks)
ii. Aqueous state (1 ½ marks)
b). The table below gives the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in particles A,B,C,D,E,F, and G
Particle Protons Electrons Neutrons
A 6 6 6
B 10 10 12
C 12 10 12
D 6 6 8
E 13 10 14
F 17 17 18
G 8 10 8
i. Which particle is likely to be a halogen? (1 mark)
ii. What is the mass number of E? (1 mark)
iii. Write the formula of the compound formed when E combines with G? (1 mark)
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28. The grid below is part of the periodic table. Use it to answer the questions that follow. (The letters are not the
actual symbols of the elements).
A B C
D E F G
H
a) Which is he most reactive non-metallic element shown in the table? Explain (2 marks)
b) i). Write the formula of the compound formed when element A reacts with element B (1 mark)
ii). Name the bond type in the compound formed in b (i) above (1 mark)
c) What is the name given to the group of elements where, C,G and H belong? (1 mark)
d) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs when C in gaseous form is passed through a solution
containing ions of element H (1 mark)
e) The melting points of elements F and G are 14100C and -101 respectively. In terms of structure and
bonding, explain why there is a large difference in the melting points of F and G. (2 marks)
f) D forms two oxides. Write the formula of each of the two oxides. (1 mark)
g) J is an element that belongs to the 3rd period of the periodic table and a member of the alkaline earth
elements. Show the position of j in the grid (1 mark)
29. The grid below shows a part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent the actual symbols. Use it to
answer the questions that follow:-
C
K U T
X Y M Q W
J Z
a) i). How do the atomic radius of element X and Y compare
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ii). Using crosses (X) to represent electrons, draw the atomic structure of element Q
iii). State the period and the group to which element Q belong
b) i). The ionic configuration of element G is 2.8 G forms an ion of the type G-1. Indicate on the grid, the
position of element G.
ii). To which chemical family does element G belong?
c) i). State one use of element U
ii). What is the nature of the compound formed between K and U?
d) Select the element with the smallest atomic radius
30. Study the table below and answer the questions that follow.
Particle Atomic number Ionic Formula of oxide Atomic radii Ionic
configuration radii
P 4 ………….. …………… 0.110 0.031
Q …………... 2.8.8 QO 0.200 0.099
R …………… 2.8.8 R 2O 0.230 0.133
S 17 2.8.8 S2O7 0.099 0.181
T 16 …………… ……… 0.104 0.231
i. Complete the table above
ii. From the table, choose the most reactive metal. Explain
iii. Which element is the most electronegative. Explain
iv. Using dots (.) and crosses (x) to represent electrons, show the bonding in the chloride of Q
v. Explain the solubility of element T in water
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vi. Why is Aluminium used to make utensils yet it is a reactive metal?
vii. Distinguish between valency and oxidation number
31. The grid below represents part of the periodic table. Study it and answer the questions that follow:
S R E X
Q Z M T V
a) Identify the element that gains electrons most readily
b) Which of the metal is most reactive? Explain
c) What name is given to the family of elements to which elements X and T belong?
d) Explain why:-
i. Ionic radius of Q is smaller than that of M
ii. Atomic radius of Q is greater than that of S
e) Which of the element in the table does not have the ability to form an ionic or covalent bond? Explain
f) Give the formula of the compound formed between R and Z
32. The grid below is part of the periodic table. The elements are not represented by their actual symbols. Use
the information to answer the questions that follow.
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a) Which is the most reactive:
(i) Non — metal? Explain
(ii) Metal? Explain
b) Name the family to which elements T and Q belongs.
c) Write the formula of the compound formed when W reacts with S.
d) Name the type of bond and structure formed when elements R and K react.
e) Explain why element N doesn’t form compounds with other elements.
f) Compare the atomic radii of T and Q. Explain
33. Study the data given in the following table and answer the questions that follow. The letters are not the
actual symbols of elements.
Element Number of protons Melting point Bpt oC
A 11 98 890
B 12 650 1110
C 13 60 2470
D 14 1410 2360
E 15 442, 590 280
F 16 113, 119 445
G 17 -101 -35
H 18 -189 -186
a) State and explain the trend in melting point in A B C
b) Explain why the melting point and boiling points of element D are the highest
c) Explain why the element represented by letter E has two melting point values
d) Write down the chemical formula between element C and sulphate ions
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e) Name the chemical family in which H belong and state one use of the element
f) What is the nature of the oxide of the elements represented by letters C and F?
34. The table below gives information on four elements by letters K, L, M and N. Study it and answer the
questions that follow. The letters do not represent the actual symbol of the elements.
Element Electron arrangement Atomic radius (nm) Ionic radius (nm)
K 2.8.2 0.136 0.065
L 2.8.7 0.099 0.181
M 2.8.8.1 0.203 0.133
N 2.8.8.2 0.174 0.099
a) Which two elements have similar properties? Explain
b) What is the most likely formula of the oxide of L?
c) Which element is non-metal? Explain
35. Study the information given below and answer the questions that follow:
Element Atomic radius (nm) Ionic radius (nm) Formula of oxide Melting point
of oxide (ºC)
A 0.364 0.421 A2O -119
D 0.830 0.711 DO2 837
E 0.592 0.485 E2O3 1466
G 0.381 0.446 G2O5 242
J 0.762 0.676 JO 1054
a) Write the formula of the compound formed when J combined with G
b) Explain why the melting point of the oxide of E is higher than that of the oxide of G
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36. Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow:
Element Atomic radius (nm) Ionic radius (nm)
W 0.114 0.195
X 0.072 0.136
Y 0.133 0.216
Z 0.099 0.181
a) Would these form part of a metallic or a non-metallic group? Explain
b) Suggest an element in the table above likely to be the most reactive. Explain
37. Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow. The letters do not represent the
actual symbols of the elements.
Element Electronic configuration Boiling point
X 2.7 -188oC
Y 2.8.7 -35oC
Z 2.8.8.7 59oC
a) What is the general name given to the group in which the elements X, Y and Z belong?
b) Select two elements which are coloured gases
c) Explain why Z has the highest boiling point
d) Write an equation for the reaction of element Z with iron metal
e) Element Y was dissolved in water and a piece of blue litmus paper was put into the resulting solution.
State and explain the observation that was made on the litmus paper
38. The table below shows elements A, B, C, E, F, and G. Elements in group X have a valency of 2 while elements
in group Y have a valency of 1. Use the table to answer the questions that follow:-
GROUP X GROUP Y
Element A B C E F G
Atomic radius (nm) 14.0 19.5 19.7 5.2 7.9 11.3
Ionic radius (nm) 7.6 10.5 12.4 12.6 16.1 19.6
a) Atomic radius increases from A to C and from E to G. Explain.
b) Explain the difference in the atomic and ionic radii of group X elements
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c) Elements C and G belong to the same period. Explain why the atomic radius of C is greater than that of
G
d) Give the formula of the compound formed when B and F react
e) What type of bonding is formed in the compound above? Explain
f) Starting with the least reactive, arrange the elements in group Y in the order of reactivity. Explain:
39. The table below gives elements represented by letters T, U, V, W, X, Y and their atomic numbers
Element T U V W X Y
Atomic number 12 13 14 15 16 17
Electron arrangement
Use the information in the table to answer the questions below: -
a) Complete the above table giving the electron arrangement of each of the elements
b) In which period of the periodic table do these elements belong? Give a reason
c) How does the atomic radius v compare with that of X? Explain
d) Give the formula of the compound that could be formed between U and W
e) What type of bonding will be present in a compound formed between T and Y? Explain
f) Arrange the species T-, T+ and T in increasing order of size
g) Which of the ions X2+ and X2- is the most stable? Explain
h) Give the formula of:
I. An acidic oxide formed when one of the elements in the table is heated in air
II. A basic oxide formed when one of the elements in the table is heated in air
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40. The grid below represents part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the 1. The grid
below represents part of the periodic table. The letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements.
Study it and answer the questions that follow:
L L
M P T J U X
N Q R S B V Y
H W
K
\
a. Explain why element L appears in two different groups in the grid above (1mk)
b. i). State the name of the chemical family to which P and Q ,X and Y belong (1 mk)
the compound formed between P and V (1mk
iii). Name the bond type of compound above,give a reason
c.
i Compare the melting points of, N and K,S and B, V and W Explain(6mks)
ii Compare the atomic radius of H and W (2mks)
d.
i Select the element with the smallest and largest atomic radius ,explain (2mks
ii Identify an element whose oxide dissolves in both acids and alkalis (1 mark
iii Write the equation for the burning of T in excess air (1 mark
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iv Using dot and cross (x) to represent electrons, draw a diagram to illustrate bonding in sulphide of Q
and chloride of R (2 marks)
v State one use of element X (1 mark)
vi Draw a well diagram show how gas J ,L and gas V can be prepared in the laboratory 6marks
vii Draw a well labelled diagram to show how you can prepare chloride of Q and Chloride of R by direct
synthesis .
e. Excess powder of element Q was heated with 2.7875g of lead (II) oxide ,until there was no further
change in mass . calculate the mass of metal formed and mass of metal R than reacted with lead (II)
oxide
f. i). Select the most electronegative /strongest oxidizing /most reactive metal and the most
electropositive/ strongest reducing element/most reactive metal
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iii). Compare the melting point and boiling point of the oxide T and S
iv). Give two commercial uses of element J (2 marks)
g. Select an element that:
i exist as Diatomic molecule
ii exist as Monoatomic gas
iii exist as Tetratomic molecule
iv exist as Octatonic molecule
v That has a simple molecular structure but is a solid at room temperature . give a reason for
such
vi That forms a soluble carbonate
vii That exhibits allotropy
h. i). Compare the atomic mass of H and M (2 marks
ii). Compare the reactivity of H and M (2mks)
Compare the first ionization energy of H and M AND n AND Q(2mks)
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iii). Element Z is in the third period and forms ions with charge of -3, place it in the grid above
iv). Element Z forms two ions, write the formula and configuration of the ions
v). Elements P, Q,R ,and S have atomic numbers 2,14,18 and 20 respectively select two elements in
the same chemical family
k. compare the rate of diffusion of gas v and W
.
i. Write the configuration of phosphorus in the following
i. PH3
ii. PO33-
iii. PO43-
j. Write the configuration of
i. Ca2-
ii. Al+2
iii. O-
j. Compare the melting points of the following
i. Chloride of H and chloride of S
ii. Oxide of Q and oxide of B
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iii. Chloride of Q and chloride R
J.
i Draw the atomic structure of element Q given that its mass number is 24 .
ii Write down the electronic configurations of the most stable ions of elements Q and
V
41. The figure below represents trends of some properties of period three elements. Study it answer
the questions that follow.
k. Explain the trends shown by the atomic numbers and the atomic radii
(i) Atomic number (1 mark)
(ii) Atomic radii (2 marks)
42. Figure 2 is a section of the periodic table. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
The letters do not represent the actual symbols of elements.
G
I V
K L M
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a) i). Select elements which belong to the same chemical family. (1 mark)
ii) Write the formulae of ions for elements in the same period. (1 mark)
b) . The first ionization energies of two elements K and M at random are 577 kj/mol and 494kj/mol.
i).write equations for the 1st ionization energies for elements K and M and indicate their energies. (1
mark)
ii). Explain the answer in (b) (i). (2mark)
iii). Write the formula of the compound formed when L and I react. (1 mark)
iv). Give one use of element V, (1 mark)
c) i). State another group that G can be placed in figure above . Explain (2 mark)
ii) How do the reactivity of elements J and K compare? Explain (2mark)
d). (i) Elements L and M form chlorides. Complete the following table by writing the formulae of each
chloride and state the nature of the solutions.
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Element Formula of chloride Nature of chloride solution
L
ii). The chloride of element M vaporizes easily while its oxide has a high melting point. Explain .
L. On the same axes, sketch the trend of reactivity across the period (1 mark)
Complete the table below
Compound nature of solution AlCl3
NaCl NaO
MgCl2 P2O3
Additional questions copy in your note books and answer
43. Study the table and answer the questions that follow.
Element Atomic number Atomic radius (nm) Ionic radius (nm) Melting point (oC)
A 12 0.136 0.065 650
B 14 0.118 1410
C 17 0.099 0.181 101
D 20 0.171 0.099 850
(a) Identify two elements with similar chemical properties . Explain. (2 marks)
(b) Explain why A has a large atomic radius than B. (1 mark)
(c) State the observations made when element A is placed in a beaker filled with water. (2 marks)
(d) Explain the difference in melting points of element B and C. (2 marks)
(e) How would you expect the pH values of aqueous solutions of the oxides of C and D to compare.
Explain. (2 marks)
(f) Describe how crystals of sodium sulphate can be prepared starting with sodium metal. (3 marks)
(g) State one use of element D. (1 mark)
44. Study the information below and answer the questions that follow.
Formula of the chloride NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3 SCl2
M.P (ºC) 801 714 70 91 80
Formula of the oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7
M.P (ºC) 1190 3080 2050 1730 560 73 90
(a) Aluminium chloride AlCl3, has an unexpected bond type and structure.
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(i) State the type of bond and the structure in AlCl3. (1 mark)
(ii) What type of bonding would AlCl3 be expected to have why? (1 mark
(iii) Why is the melting point of AlCl3 not indicated in the table above? (1 mark)
(b) A piece of blue litmus paper is placed in a solution of sodium chloride and a solution of
aluminium chloride. Explain what would be observed in each case.
(i) Sodium chloride solution (1 mark)
(ii) Aluminium chloride solution (2 marks)
(c) Explain the large difference in the melting point of the compound of formula MgO and P 4O10.
(2 marks)
(d) Write down the equations for the reaction between the compounds of formula Na 2O and water.
(1 mark)
(e) Silicon (IV) chloride gets hydrolyzed by water . Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (1
mark)
45. A natural element represented by letter Y has two types of atoms. The composition of the particles
is as summarized below.
Type of atom Nucleons present % composition
63
Y
29 29, 34 ____
65
Y
29 29, ____ 30.9
(a) Complete the missing numbers. (1 mark)
(b) What is the name assigned to these two types of atoms? (1 mark)
(c) Which atom has the least percentage of abundance? (½ mark)
(d) Calculate the relative atomic mass of Y. (2 marks
(e) Explain what is meant by nuclear particles giving examples where possible. (1½ marks
46.
(a) Study the information given below and answer the questions that follow.
Atomic radius Ionic radius Formula of Melting point of oxide
Element
(nm) (nm) oxide (‘C)
P 0.364 0.421 A2O -119
Q 0.830 0.711 BO2 837
R 0.592 0.485 E2O3 1466
S 0.381 0.446 G2O5 242
T 0.762 0.676 JO 1054
(i) Which elements are non-metals? Give a reason. (2 marks)
(ii) Explain why the melting point of the oxide of R is higher than that of the oxide of S. (2 marks)
(iii) Give two elements that would react vigorously with each other. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
(b) Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow (The letters do
not represent the actual symbols of the elements)
Ionization energy (kJ/mole)
Element Electronic configuration 1st 1.E 2nd 1.E
A 2.2 900 1800
B 2.8.2 736 1450
C 2.8.8.2 590 1150
(i) What chemical family do the elements A, B and C belong? (1 mark)
(ii) What is meant by the term ionization energy? (1 mark)
(iii) The 2nd ionization energy is higher than the 1 st ionization energy of each. Explain. (1 mark)
(iv) When a piece of element C is placed in cold water, it sinks to the bottom and an effervescence
of a colourless gas that bums explosively is produced. Use a simple diagram to illustrate how
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this gas can be collected during this experiment.
(3 marks)
47. Study the part of the periodic table below and answer the questions that follow.
(The letters do not represent actual chemical symbols of the elements)
A C D F
Q B E
(a) Which element represents: (4 marks)
i) Alkali metal
ii) Halogen
iii) Most reactive metal
iv) Has an octet in the outermost energy level.
(b) Write the electronic arrangement of the: (4 marks)
i) ion of B
ii) ion of E
iii) ion of A
iv) atom of C
(c) An element X is in Group V and period 3. Indicate the position of X on the grid and write its
electron arrangement in the same grid.
(2 marks)
(d) Explain why the atomic radius of D is smaller than that of C. (3 marks)
(e) Explain why the ionic radius of A is smaller than its atomic radius. (3 marks)
(f) Explain why the ionic radius of E is greater than its atomic radius. (3 marks)
48.
(a) The grid below represents part of the periodic table. Study it and answer the questions that
follow.
Q
W R S
T U
V Z
(i) Which element will require the least amount of energy to remove a valence electron? Explain.
(2 marks)
(ii) Which one is the most reactive nonmetal? Explain. (2 marks
(iii) Write the formula of the compound formed between W and R. (1 mark)
(iv) Explain why the atomic radius of element S is smaller than that of R. (2 marks)
(b) Study the information in the table below and answer the questions that follow.
Formula of
NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4 PCl3 S2Cl2
compounds
Boiling Sublimes at
1470 1420 60 75 60
point ºC 180ºC
Melting
800 710 -70 -90 -80
point ºC
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(i) Give two chlorides that are liquid at room temperature. (1 mark)
(ii) Which of the chloride would remain in liquid state for the highest temperature range (show how
you arrive at your answer)
(2 marks)
(iii) Write chemical equations for the reaction of chloride of sulphur and phosphorus with water
(iv) . (4 marks)
(v) Draw a dot (●) and cross (x) diagram for aluminium chloride at 180 ºC. (2 marks)
49.
(a) The table below shows some of the properties of period III elements.
Element Q R V X Y Z
Atomic radii (nm) 0.136 0.099 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.157
Formula of oxide QO R2O V2O3 XO2 Y2O5 Z 2O
Melting point (ºC) 650 110 660 119 44.2 97.8
Conductivity Good Poor Good Poor Poor Good
(i) From the table which elements would be:
I. Magnesium (1 mark)
II. Sulphur (1 mark)
(ii) Write the formula of the chloride of X. (1 mark)
(iii) Arrange the elements as they appear from left to right of periodic table. (2 marks)
(iv) A solution of aluminium chloride is acidic to litmus. Explain this observation. (1 mark)
(v) What type of bonding would you expect the chloride of Y to exhibit? (1 mark)
(vi) Write a chemical equation for the reaction of oxide of Y with water. (2 marks)
(b) Use the information in the table below to answer the questions that follow.
Ionization energy in kJ
Element 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
V 320 580 4900 7200
W 430 4300 6200 8300
X 600 1050 1450 16000
Y 7000 9000 10500 14000
Z 200 420 5200 6600
(i) Name two elements that can be found in the same group? Explain. (2 marks)
(ii) To which group do elements W belong? Explain. (2 marks)
(iii) Element Y is found to be in group IV. Write the formulae when it reacts with oxygen
gas.(1mark)
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(iv) Which of the two elements named in “i” above is more reactive? Explain. (2 marks)
(v) Which of the five elements above is the best conductor of electricity? Explain. (2 marks)
50. Use the figure below to answer the questions that follow
State and explain the difference in melting point of
I. Sodium and Aluminium (1 ½ marks
II. Oxygen and Sulphur (1 ½ marks
51. Use the figure below to answer the questions that follow
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Explain why the first ionization energy of lithium is higher than that of potassium
I. Select the element with the highest first ionization energy
II. Select the strongest reducing agent
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CHAPTER FIVE: SALTS
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) Select and use appropriate methods of preparing particular salts
b) Explain the terms saturated solution, crystallisation, neutralisation and precipitation
c) Write ionic equations for the preparation of salts
d) State types of salts
e) Identify soluble and insoluble salts
f) Describe and explain from experimental observations the action of heat on various salts
g) State uses of some salts
SALT
Salt is a substance formed when all or part of hydrogen ions in an acid is replaced by a metal Cation or
ammonium ion
TYPES OF SALTS
normal salts-they do not contain replaceable hydrogen ion eg NaCl, MgNO3
acid salts-they contain replaceable hydrogen ions NaHCO3,NaHSO4, NaHSO3,
double salts-contain two different anions or cations e.g KAl(SO4)2.12H2O, (NH4)2FeSO4. 6H2O
basic salts-are salts that contain hydroxyl (OH-) ion,e.g Pb(OH)Cl, Zn(OH)Cl
Solubility of salts
All salts of Na, K, and NH4+ are soluble
All nitrates (NO3-), acetates (CH3COO-), hypochlorite (OCl- ), chlorates (CLO3-), HCO3- and
perchlorates (ClO4-) are soluble
All sulphates are soluble except those of Pb2+, Ba2+ and Ca2+ but caso4 is sparingly soluble
All chlorides are soluble except those of Pb2+ and Ag+ but Pbcl2 soluble in hot water
All metal oxides, metal hydroxides, and carbonates are insoluble except those of Na, K, and
NH4+
Table of solubility of salts
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
All nitrate(V)salts
All sulphate(VI)/SO42- salts except Barium sulphate/BaSO4
Calcium sulphate/CaSO4
Lead (II) sulphate/PbSO4 (SULEBACA)
All Sulphite(IV)/SO32- salts except Barium sulphite/BaSO3
Calcium sulphite/CaSO3
Lead sulphite/PbSO3 (SULEBACA)
All chlorides/Cl- except Silver chloride/AgCl
Lead (II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in hot water) (CLESI)
All phosphate(V)/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and ammonium salts
All hydrogen carbonates/HCO3-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
Potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
Ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3
All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases
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METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS
The method used to prepare a salt depends on whether is soluble or insoluble
METHODS OF PREPARING SOLUBLE SALTS
i ) Metal acid salt Hydrogen
Mg ( s ) HCl( aq ) MgCl2 ( aq ) H 2( g )
ii ) Acid alkali salt water
NaOH ( aq ) HCl( aq ) NaCl( aq ) H 2O(l )
iii ) Acid insoluble base
salt water
CuO( s ) H 2 SO4 aq
CuSO4 aq H 2O(l )
iv) Acid carbonate
salt water carbon IV oxide
MgCO3( s ) H 2 SO4 aq
MgSO4( aq ) H 2O(l ) CO2( g )
v) Acid hydrogen carbonate salt water carbon IV oxide
NaHCO3 ( s ) HCl( aq )
NaCl aq H 2O( l ) CO2 ( g )
vi) Direct synthesis
eg , 2K( S ) Cl2 g
2 KCl( s )
1. PREPARATION OF ZINC SULPHATE
Method; metal + acid
Reagents; zinc metal, dilute sulphuric(VI) acid
Methodology/Procedure
Measure about 20cm3 of dilute sulphuric(VI) acid and transfer it to a clean beaker, add excess zinc powder little by
little while stirring until effervescence stops, filter and heat /evaporate the filtrate to saturation, allow it to cool for
crystals of ZnSO4 to grow
Points to note;
Excess zinc is added to make sure all the acid has reacted
Effervescence is due to production of hydrogen gas(the gas can be confirmed by lowering a
burning splint into a gas jar full of the gas,it is put off with a pop sound)
The reaction is complete when effervescence stops
Filtration is important to remove the unreacted zinc
Equation for the reaction
Zn( s ) H 2 SO4 aq
ZnSO4( aq ) H 2( g )
Other salts that can be prepared using the same method, ZnCl2 ,MgSO4, CaCl2 ,MgCl2
Complete the equations below
Mg ( s ) H 2 SO4 ( aq )
Zn( s ) H 2 SO4 ( aq )
2. PREPARATION OF COPPER (II) SULPHATE
Method; acid + insoluble base
Reagents; dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and Copper (II) oxide
Method
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Measure about 25cm3 of dilute sulphuric (VI) and transfer it into a clean beaker, warm the acid. Add excess Copper
(II) oxide little by little while stirring until no more of it can dissolve. Filter and evaporate the filtrate in an evaporating
dish to saturation and cool it to allow crystals of CuSO4 to grow.
Observation made
Black soild dissolves
Blue solution is formed
Points to note;
the reaction is complete when no more copper(II) oxide can dissolve
Warming is necessary as increases the kinetic energy of reacting particles hence increases chances of
fruitful collisions hence increase rate of reaction.
filtration is important to remove the unreacted copper(II) oxide
copper(II) sulphate cannot be prepared using copper metal and dilute sulphuric(VI) acid because copper
is below hydrogen in the reactivity series hence cant displace hydrogen.
Equation for the reaction
CuO s H 2 SO4 aq
CuSO4( aq ) H 2O(l )
Other salts that can be prepared through the above method
Copper(II) chloride, Calcium chloride, lead(II) nitrate
MgO s H 2 SO4 aq
ZnO s H 2 SO4 aq
PREPARATION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE
Method; acid + alkali
Reagents- Sodium hydroxide and Hydrochloric acid
Procedure
Fill the burette with dilute hydrochloric acid, measure about 20cm 3 of dilute sodium hydroxide and transfer into a
clean conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the alkali and run the acid from the burette into
the alkali while shaking until there is a permanent colour change. Repeat the experiment without using the indicator
but add the same amount of acid. Heat to evaporate the resulting solution to saturation and allow it to cool to obtain
crystals of the salt.
Points to note;
The reaction is complete when there is a permanent colour change
Purpose of using the indicator to determine the end point
The experiment is repeated without using the indicator to avoid contaminating the salt
Equation to the reaction
NaOH aq HCl aq
NaCl( aq ) H 2O(l )
Sodium chloride cannot be prepared using sodium metal and dilute hydrochloric acid because the
reaction is explosive hence can cause accidents
Other salts that can be prepred in the same method, complete the equations below
NaOH ( aq ) HNO3( aq )
NaNO3 aq H 2O l
KOH aq HNO3( aq )
KOH aq H 2 SO4 ( aq )
KOH aq HCl( aq )
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PREPARATION OF CALCIUM CHLORIDE
Method; Acid + carbonate
Procedure
Measure about 20cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid and transfer it to a clean beaker, add calcium carbonate little by
little until effervescence stops, filter and heat to evaporate the filtrate to saturation and allow it to cool for crystals
to grow.
Points to note
The reaction is complete when effervescence stops and no more carbonate can dissolve
CaSO4 cannot be prepared using calcium carbonate and dilute sulphuric because of formation of
insoluble coat of calcium sulphate which prevents further reaction between the acid and the carbonate
Equation for the reaction
CaCO3 s 2 HCl( aq ) CaCl2( aq ) H 2O(l ) CO2( g )
ZnCO3 s 2 HCl( aq ) ZnCl2( aq ) H 2O(l ) CO2( g )
CuCO3 s 2 HCl( aq ) CuCl2( aq ) H 2O(l ) CO2 g
PbSO4 and PbCl2 cannot be prepared from reaction of lead carbonate with silphuric (VI) acid and hydrochloric
acid due to formation of insoluble PbSO4 and PbCl2 that coats the carbonate preventing further reaction.
NB: preparation of salts from acids and hydrogen carbonates follow the above procedure. Only hydrogen
carbonates of Na, K, Ca, Mg and NH 4+ exist
PREPARATION OF SALTS BY DIRECT SYNTHESIS
This is preparation of salts by direct combination of elements
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a non metal , the two directly combine
to form a salt. e.g.
Describe how potassium chloride can be prepared by direct synthesis
cut a small piece of potassium metal, place it in a deflagrating spoon burn it briefly and lower it into a gas jar of
chlorine ,it will react forming potassium chloride,
Describe how Alumnium chloride can be prepared by direct synthesis
Pass dry chlorine gas over heated aluminium metal in a combustion tube ,it will react forming Aluminium chloride
2 Na( s ) Cl2( g )
2 NaCl( s )
2 K( s ) Cl2( g )
2 KCl( s )
PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS
Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form one soluble and one insoluble.
This is called double decomposition or precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the residue is washed with
distilled water then dried
General procedure for preparing insoluble salts
The first step is obtain two soluble salts, theN mix the two salts to precipitate the insoluble salt, filter ,wash the
residue with distilled water to remove traces of soluble salt, dry the residue between filter papers
CuSO4( aq ) Na2CO3( aq )
CuCO3s Na2 SO4( aq )
BaCl2( aq ) K 2SO4( aq )
BaSO4s 2KCl( aq )
Pb( NO3 )2( aq ) K 2SO4( aq )
PbSO4s 2 KNO3( aq )
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Points to note when answering questions on insoluble salts in the exam set up. Whereby the stater reagent
is either a metal or metal oxide.
First convert the metal/metal oxide into a soluble Salt by reacting excess metal/metal oxide with dilute
nitric acid to obtain metal nitrate(all nitrates are soluble) ,then to get insoluble salt/hydroxide add a salt
of potassium or sodium (because all salts of sodium and potassium are soluble ,then filter and wash the
residue with distilled water and dry it between filter papers
When the starter reagent is metal below hydrogen in the reactivity series like Copper metal you first burn
the copper in air to form copper (II) oxide then react the oxide with a dilute acid.
eg lead (II) sulphate starting with lead
Add excess lead metal to dilute Nitric (V) acid to form Pb(NO3)2, filter to remove uncreated lead and Pb(NO3)2
as filtrate, add Na2SO4 solution to the filtrate to precipitate PbSO4,filter to obtain PbSO4 as residue and wash it
with distilled water and dry it between filter papers .
NOTES ON PREPARATION OF DOUBLE SALTS
Double salt are prepared by mixing two soluble salts which react to form the double salt ,usually a complex salt
Preparation of ammonium iron (II) sulphate; this salt is prepared by mixing ammonium sulphate solution with iron
(II) sulphate solution, then you heat to evaporate the resulting solution to saturation and allowing it to cool to form
crystals then filter and dry the crystal between filter papers
In a normal examination set up the starter reagent determines the procedure to use e.g
Describe how a solid sample of the double salt .Ammonium iron (II) sulphate can be prepared using the
following reagents, aqueous ammonia, and sulphuric (VI) acid and iron metal
add iron metal to dilute sulphuric (VI) acid to form iron (II) sulphate, add aquoes ammonia to sulphuric (VI) acid to
form Ammonium sulphate;mix the two solutions of iron (II) sulphate and Ammonium sulphate to form a solution of
Ammonium iron (II) sulphate; heat to evaporate the solution until crystallization starts to form, filter to obtain the
double salt.
Properties of salts
Deliquescence , Hygroscopy and Efflorescence.
a) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb moisture /water vapour from the atmosphere but
do not form a solution e.g. copper(II)sulphate, anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride, potassium nitrate and
common table salt.
NB pure sodium chloride is not hygroscorpic but common salt contain MgCl2 which give it the
hygroscorpic properties as it absorbs water vapour from the atmosphere making it damp,
b) Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb moisture/water vapour from the atmosphere and
form a solution e.g. Sodium nitrate,Calcium chloride, Sodium hydroxide, Iron(II)chloride, Magnesium
chloride.
c) Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere e.g.
sodium carbonate decahydrate, Iron(II)sulphate. heptahydrate, sodium sulphate decahydrate.
d) Some salts contain water of crystallization.They are hydrated.Others do not contain water of
crystallization. They are anhydrous.
Table showing some hydrated salts.
Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium sulphate hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron (II) sulphate heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
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Table of some double salts
Name of double salts Chemical formula
Trona (sodium sesquicarbonate dehydrate ) Na2CO3 • NaHCO3 • 2H2O
Ammonium iron (II) Sulphate NH 4 2 Fe SO4 2 .6H 2O
Ammonium Aluminium Sulphate NH4 Al SO4 2 ·12H2O
Effects of heat on salts
a) Effect of heat on chlorides
All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not affected by laboratory heating except
ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride undergoes thermal dissociation into ammonia and hydrogen chloride
gases on strong heating.
NH 4Cl g NH 3( g ) HCl( g )
b) Effect of heat on nitrates
i. Potassium nitrate/KNO3 and sodium nitrate/NaNO3 decompose on heating to form Potassium
nitrate/KNO2 and sodium nitrate/NaNO2 and producing Oxygen gas in each case.
2 KNO3 ( s )
heat
2 KNO2 ( s ) O2( g )
2 NaNO3 ( s )
heat
2 NaNO2 ( s ) O2( g )
ii. Heavy metal nitrates(V) salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and a mixture of brown acidic
nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca NO3 2( s )
2CaO( s ) 4 NO2( g ) O2( g )
2Mg NO3 2( s )
2MgO( s ) 4 NO2( g ) O2( g )
iii. Silver(I)nitrate and Mercury (II) nitrate are lowest in the reactivity series. They decompose on heating to
form the metal (silver and mercury)and the Nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2 AgNO3( s )
heat
2 Ag( s ) 2 NO2( g ) O2( g )
2 Hg NO3 2 ( s )
heat
2 Hg( s ) 4 NO2( g ) O2( g )
Ammonium nitrate and Ammonium nitrate decompose on heating to Nitrogen(I)oxide(relights/rekindles
glowing splint) and nitrogen gas respectively.Water is also formed.i.e.
NH 4 NO3( s ) N 2O g H 2O(l )
NH 4 NO2 ( s ) N 2 ( g ) H 2O( l )
NB:The ease of decomposition of nitrates increases down the reactivity series.
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c) Effect of heat on sulphates
Most metal sulphates are very stable and don’t decompose on heating .Only Iron(II)sulphate, Iron(III)sulphate and
copper (II) sulphateand Zinc sulphate decompose on heating. They form the oxide, and produce highly acidic
fumes of acidic sulphur (VI )oxide gas.
2 FeSO4 .7 H 2 O s Fe2O3 s SO3( g ) SO2 ( g ) 14 H 2 Ol
Fe2 SO4 3( s ) Fe2O3( s ) SO3( g )
CuSO4 . 5H 2 O s CuO( s ) SO3( g ) +5H 2 O l
2 ZnSO4 .7H 2 O(s) + 2ZnO(s) + 2SO3(g) +14H 2 O l
Effect of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonate.
i. Sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate do not decompose on heating.
ii. Heavy metal nitrate salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and produce carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Carbon (IV)oxide gas forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water. The white precipitate
dissolves if the gas is in excess. e.g.
CuCO3( s ) CuO( s ) CO2( g )
CaCO3( s ) CaO( s ) CO2( g )
PbCO3( s ) PbO( s ) CO2( g )
iii. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Potassium hydrogen carbonate (IV)decompose on heating to give
the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i.e.
2 NaHCO3 s Na2CO3 s CO2 g H 2O(l )
2 KHCO3 s K 2CO3 s CO2 g H 2O(l )
iv. Calcium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to give
the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i. e.
Ca HCO3 2aq
CaCO3 s CO2 g H 2Ol
Mg HCO3 2aq
MgCO3 s CO2 g H 2Ol
NB: Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) and Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) only exist in solution form.
Summary of action of heat on salts
Metal Action of heat on Nitrates Action of heat on carbonates
K Decompose to metal nitrite and oxygen gas No effect
2 NaNO3( s )
2 NaNO2( s ) O2( g )
heat
Na
Ca Decompose to form metal oxide ,nitrogen(IV) oxide Decompose to form metal oxide and
Mg and oxygen gas e.g. carbon(IV)oxide gas. eg
2 Pb NO3 2( s )
heat
2 PbO( s ) 4 NO2 g O2( g )
Al PbCO3 s
heat
PbO s CO2 g
2Cu NO3 2( s
heat
2CuO( s ) 4 NO2( g ) O2( g )
Zn FeCO3 s
heat
FeO s CO2 g
Fe
Pb
Cu
Hg
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\Decompose to free metal, Nitrogen (IV)
Ag oxide and oxygen gas e.g. Silver carbonate decompose to silver and CO2
2 Hg NO3 2 s
2 Hg s 4 NO2 g O2 g
heat
Ag 2CO3 s
heat
Ag 2O s CO2 g
2 AgNO3 s
heat
2 Ag s 2 NO2 g O2 g
Decomposition of ammonium salts
NH 4 2 CO3 s
heat
NH 3( g ) CO2 ( g ) H 2Ol
NH 4 NO2 s
heat
N 2 g H 2Ol
NH 4 NO3 s
heat
N 2O H 2Ol
NH 4 HCO3 s
heat
NH 3( g ) CO2 ( g ) H 2O l
SPECIAL ANALYSIS OF SALTS
These are special notes prepared in order to demystify the concept of salt as tested in the KCSE exam ,it
is my hope students will find them helpful and will help the to unravel the mystery of salts and
consequently improve in their grades in chemistry because chapter of salts is a core topic and is always
tested in KCSE. However these notes should be used together with the teachers notes and practical
manual notes in demystifying chemistry practical guide book. Also it is important to that it will be almost
impossible to answer any question on salts without knowledge on solubility of salts.
Questions on salts will be based on three main areas:
Preparation
Separation
action of heat and other properties eg, hygroscopy ,efflorescence ,and deliquescence
QUESTIONS ON PREPARATION
1. To answer question on preparation of salts you need to have solubility of salts on your nerves if not on
your fingertips, but most questions test on preparation of insoluble salts of which the concept of
precipitation must be used. Also when reacting acid with a base, metal or carbonate you must make sure
all the acid is used up by adding excess metal or excess carbonate to the acid and always filter to remove
the unreacted solid. Do not add excess acid because removing the excess acid is difficult.
2. When preparing salts, the method used is determined by starter reagent and if it is soluble, insoluble or a
double salt.
3. To prepare a soluble salt whereby the starter reagent is metal/metal oxide/metal hydroxide or metal
carbonate. Add excess of the metal/metal oxide or metal carbonate to dilute acid, filter heat the filtrate to
saturation and cool to crystalize.
4. For soluble salt preparation, add excess reagent to dilute acid, filter, evaporate the filtrate to saturation,
cool it to crystallize, filter
5. For insoluble salt the method must involve precipitation by reacting two soluble salts, for instance: to get
the soluble salt whereby the starter reagent is metal/metal oxide/metal hydroxide or metal carbonate. Add
excess of the metal/metal oxide or metal carbonate to dilute nitric (V) acid (because all nitrates are
soluble), filter then add a soluble salt of sodium or potassium (because all salts of potassium and sodium
are soluble) to precipitate the insoluble salt. Filter, wash the residue with distilled water and dry it between
filter papers.
6. In case the salt to be prepared is a salt of copper or silver (metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series)
first burn the metal in air to form metal oxide (because metals below hydrogen in reactivity series don’t
react with dilute acids), then add excess metal oxide to dilute acid, filter and add soluble salt of sodium or
potassium. filter wash the residue with distilled water and dry it between filter papers.
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7. In preparation of insoluble salt whereby you are given the solid soluble salt to use, first dissolve the salt
in water to obtain its solution
8. NB when considering insoluble salts remember oxides like CuO, and other metal oxides are insoluble
except those of Na and
Sample questions and solutions
1. Starting with PbO explain how you can prepare a solid sample of PbSO 4
For the above question refer to guide number 4 ,first convert PbO to Pb(NO3)2,then react with a soluble
sulphate of sodium or potassium
Add excess PbO to dilute Nitric (V) acid to form Pb(NO3)2, filter to remove uncreated PbO as residue and Pb(NO3)2
as filtrate, add Na2SO4 solution to the filtrate to precipitate PbSO4,filter to obtain PbSO4 as residue and wash it
with distilled water and dry it between filter papers .
Common mistake students make is that the start by reacting lead metal with dilute Sulphuric (VI)
acid to form PbSO4 and reaction by between lead metal and the acid immediately stops due to
formation of insoluble PbSO4 which coats the metal preventing further reaction between the acid
and metal, the candidate loses all the marks
2. Starting with copper metal describe how you can prepare a solid sample of CuCO 3, refer to guide
number 5.
Heat copper in air to form CuO, add excess CuO to dilute HCl to form CuCl 2, filter to remove unreacted CuO and
CuCl2 as filtrate, add aqueous Na2CO3 to the filtrate to precipitate CuCO3 filter to obtain CuCO3 as residue wash
it with distilled water and dry it between filter papers.
Common mistake students make is that they start by reacting copper metal with dilute acids and
copper being below hydrogen in the reactivity series does not react with dilute acids and
candidates loses all the marks, such candidates are called as non-starters
3. Starting with sodium metal explain how a solid sample of NaHCO 3 can be prepared
Cut a small piece of sodium metal and place it in a given amount of distilled water in a beaker,it will react to form
sodium hydroxide solution Bubble excess carbon (IV) oxide in sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium
hydrogen carbonate. Heat the sodium hydrogen Carbonate solution to saturation and allow it cool for crystals of
NaHCO3 to grow. Filter and dry the wet crystals between filter papers
4. Starting with sodium metal explain how a solid sample of NaHSO 3 can be prepared
Cut a small piece of sodium metal and place it in a given amount of distilled water in a beaker,it will react to form
sodium hydroxide solution. Bubble excess sulphur (IV) oxide
in sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium hydrogen sulphate solution. Heat to evaporate the resulting
solution to saturation and allow it cool for crystals of NaHSO3 to grow .filter and dry the wet crystals between
filter papers
5. Describe how a sample of sodium chloride can be prepared in the laboratory by direct
Synthesis.
Cut a piece of Sodium: metal, place it on a deflagrating spoon, heat it briefly
then lower it : into a gas jar of chlorine . It will continue burning forming
Sodium Chloride. :
In preparation of insoluble salt whereby you are given the reagents to use and one of the reagents to be used is
a solid soluble salt. First dissolve the soluble salt in distilled water to obtain a solution. See the example below.
6. Describe how the following reagents can be used to prepare Lead sulphate, solid potassium
sulphate, solid lead carbonate, dilute nitric acid and distilled water.
dissolve K2SO4 in distilled water to obtain K2 SO4 solution, Add excess PbCO3 to dilute HNO3 and stir, filter to
obtain Pb(NO3 )2 as filtrate,. Mix Pb(NO3 )2 solution with K2 SO4 solution to precipitate PbSO4 ,filter and wash the
residue with distilled water and dry it between filter papers.
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7. You are provided with the following:- solid lead (II) nitrate, magnesium oxide powder, dilute sulphuric
(VI)acid and distilled water. Describe how you can prepare a dry. Sample of lead (II) sulphate
Dissolve lead (II) Nitrate crystals in a given amount of distilled water in a beaker ,add excess magnesium√ ½
oxide powder To dilute sulphuric√ ½ (VI) acid in a beaker ,filter , mix the two solutions obtained ,filter wash the
residue with distilled water and Dry it between filter papers to obtain a dry sample of lead (II) sulphate.
8. starting with solid sodium chloride describe how a pure sample of lead (II) chloride can be prepared
in the laboratory
Dissolve sodium chloride in distilled water, add aqueous lead (II) nitrate to the sodium chloride solution, filter, the
mixture ,Wash the residue with distilled water ,dry the residue between filter papers.
9. In the preparation of magnesium carbonate, magnesium was burnt in air and the product Collected. Dilute
sulphuric acid was then added and the mixture filtered and cooled. Sodium carbonate was added to the filtrate
and the contents filtered. The residue was then washed and dried to give a white powder.
a) Give the name of the product formed when magnesium was burnt in air.
Magnesium Oxide
b) Write the chemical equation for the formation of the product
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
c) Name the filtrate collected after sodium carbonate was added.
Sodium sulphate
d) Write down the chemical formula of the white powder
MgCO3
e) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between product in (a) and the acid
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
f) Write an ionic equation to show the formation of the white powder.
Mg2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) MgCO3(s
g) Write an equation to show what happens when the white powder is strongly heated.
MgCO3(g) MgO(g) + CO2(g)
h) Identify the ions present in the filtrate after addition of sodium carbonate.
Na+ ions and SO42- ions
i) What is the name given to the reaction that takes place when sodium carbonate was added to the
filtrate?
Precipitation/ double decomposition
10. Starting with sodium oxide, describe how a sample of crystals of sodium hydrogen carbonate may be
prepared
Add water to sodium oxide to form sodium hydroxide solution. Bubble excess carbon (IV) oxide in sodium hydroxide
solution to form sodium hydrogen carbonate. Heat sodium hydrogen Carbonate solution to saturation and allow it
to cool to crystallize .filter and dry the crystals between filter papers
Question of salts whereby you are given the exact quantity of one the reactants to use ,in such question you
must invoke the concept of mole concept to get the quantity of the other reactant, in such question you don’t
need to filter as the reactants react completely and none is in excess. Examples are given below
Questions on separation
Question on separation require candidates to understand properties of salt about their solubility, sublimation and
other related substances like metal oxides and substances like sulphur ,iodine etc
To separate a mixture containing soluble and insoluble substance
Is such questions assume you want to separate X and Y, X is soluble Y is insoluble
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The answer format…. Add distilled water to the mixture and stir, X dissolve and Y does not dissolve, filter to obtain
Y as residue and solution of X as filtrate, heat the filtrate to saturation and allow it to cool for crystal to form .filter,
To answer a question on separation involving a soluble and an insoluble salt e.g
11. Describe the process of separating sodium chloride crystals mixed with calcium carbonate powder.
Add distlled water to the mixture, stir to dissolve sodium chloride, filter to obtain calcium carbonate as residue and
sodium chloride as filtrate, wash the residue with distilled water and dry the residue of calcium carbonate between
filter papers, evaporate the filtrate to obtain crystals of sodium chloride. Filter and dry the crystals between filter
papers
NB: many students lose marks start by dissolve the mixture; This implies that the whole mixture is soluble in water
and therefore contradicts the whole separation process. In this case any answer beginning with the word “dissolve’
renders the whole process wrong and therefore candidate losses all the marks. This is called nonstarters
12. Some KCl was found to be contaminated with CuO .Describe how a sample of KCl can be obtained
from the mixture.
Add distilled water to the mixture and stir, KCl dissolves while CuO does not dissolve,filter to obtain KCl solution
as filtrate,evaporate the filtrate to saturation and allow it to cool for crystals to grow. filter and dry the crystals
between filter papers
When separating a mixture containing soluble and insoluble salts it is important to note that lead (II)
chloride is soluble in hot water hence a mixture containing lead (II) chloride and another insoluble salt
can be separated by …… add hot water to the mixture to dissolve PbCl 2, filter while still hot .see
example below
13. Describe how a mixture of PbCl2, NaCl and AgCl can be separated to obtain each of the salts
Add cold distilled water to the mixture and stir, NaCl dissolves while PbCl2 and AgCl do not dissolve, filter to
obtain NaCl solution as filtrate , heat the filtrate to dryness to obtaind NaCl solid, Add hot distilled water to the
remaining mixture in a beaker and stir thoroughly, PbCl2 dissolves in hot water AgCl does not dissolve, filter while
still hot to get AgCl as residue and PbCl2 solution as filtrate, cool the filtrate to precipitate lead (II) chloride, filter to
obtain PbCl2 as residue and dry it between filter papers
14. Given a solid sample of calcium carbonate and lead (II) Chloride ,explain how you can obtain some
pure crystals of lead (II) chloride
Add hot distilled water to the mixture in a beaker and stir thoroughly, PbCl 2 dissolves in hot water CaCO3 does
not dissolve, filter while still hot to get PbCl2 as filtrate, cool the filtrate for to precipitate lead (II) chloride, filter to
obtain PbCl2 as residue and dry it between filter papers
15. A sample of copper turnings was found to be contaminated with copper (II) oxide. Describe how a
sample of copper metal can be separated from the mixture
Adds excess dilute hydrochloric acid/ sulphuric (vi) acid CuO reacts with H 2SO4 while copper metal does not
react,Filter to obtain copper metal,Wash with distilled water
To separate a mixture containing substance that sublimes
To answer a question on separation involving a salt that sublimes. Always start your answer in heating the mixture
in a container covered with evaporating dish with cold water, where the substance that sublimes will sublime and
collect on the evaporating dish. Substances that sublime include FeCl3, AlCl3, , iodine ,dry ice, benzoic acid etc
Note : Ammonium chloride undergoes thermal dissociation to form ammonia gas and hydrogen
chloride gas which on cooling , the products of heated ammonium chloride recombine together to
form the original substance. This process is called thermal dissociation. However, although
Ammonium chloride does not sublimes when heated, the principle of sublimation can be used to
separate a mixture containing ammonium chloride
16. Given a mixture of lead (II) oxide, iodine and sodium chloride, describe how this mixture can be
separated to obtain a sample of each.
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Heat the mixture in a container covered with evaporating dish with cold water iodine sublimes and is collected on
the evaporating dish. Add water to the remaining mixture, stir and filter. Lead (ii) Oxide remains as residue. Heat
to evaporate th filtrate to dryness to obtain sodium chloride, filter
NB. Common mistake students don’t use a closed container, and also state that iodine sublimes and
condenses on cooler parts. Condensing vapour implies that iodine becomes liquid which contradicts the
principle of sublimation. This makes the answer wrong and the candidate loses all the marks.
17. Describe how solid ammonium chloride can be separated from a solid mixture ammonium chloride
and anhydrous calcium chloride.
Heat the mixture in a container covered with a evaporating dish with water, collect NH4Cl on the pevaporating
dish, CaCl2 remains at the bottom of the container.
18. Describe how samples of lead(II) sulphate ,sodium chloride and Ammonium Chloride can be obtained
from a mixture of the three.
Heat the mixture in a container covered with evaporating dish with water and collect NH 4Cl on the evaporating
dish while NaCl and PbSO4 remain behind , ,add water to the remaining mixture and stir, NaCl dissolves PbSO4
doesn’t filter to obtain PbSO4 as residue and NaCl solution as filtrate ,heat to evaporate the filtrate to dryness to
obtain solid NaCl. .
Questions to differentiate salts and other substances,
Here you need to understand reactions of salts including thermal decomposition, reacting with acids and colour
of coloured ions, you also need to apply the knowledge of qualitative analysis in order to answer such questions
Examples given below
Sample question 22
19. Without using any laboratory chemical, describe a simple laboratory experiment to distinguish
Between calcium hydrogen carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate solutions .
EITHER
In separate test tubes, boil about 5cm3 of each solutions, Sodium hydrogen carbonate solution remains colourless/
forms no precipitate, Calcium hydrogen carbonate solution changes from colourless to white precipitate
OR
2 NaHCO3aq
heat
Na2CO3 CO2( g ) n H 2O( e )
Ca HCO3 2( aq )
heat
CaCO3( s ) CO2( g ) H 2O( e )
HEAT must be mentioned or implied
20. Copper (II) oxide and charcoal are black solids. How would you distinguish between them.
To separate samples of CUO and charcoal in test tubes, add dilute dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and shake black
CuO black dissolves to form blue solution and no effect on charcoal
21. Describe how NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 and be differentiated.
Heat the two solids separately in test tubes NaHCO3 evolves a gas that turns blue litmus red and colourless liquid
condenses on cooler parts of test tube, Na2CO3 not affected by heating
22. Describe one method that can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphate and sodium hydrogen
sulphate.
Test the acidity using a litmus pager. There will be no change on blue litmus when dipped into a solution of sodium
sulphate (1). The blue litmus paper turns to red when dipped into a solution of sodium hydrogen sulphate (I).
OR
Add a solid carbonate to each solution. No effervescence observed when the carbonate is added to a solution of
sodium sulphate. Effervescence is observed when the carbonate is added to a solution of sodium hydrogen
sulphate.
23. Describe how CuO, MnO2 and FeS can differentiated using dilute HCl only
Place the three substances into separate test-tubes and add dilute HCl
CuO react to form a green solution,MnO2 reacts to form a colourless solution, and FeS reacts to form a green
solution
Most students assume that all copper salts are blue in colour ,this is wrong as some copper salts
156
like copper (II) carbonate
Topnotch chemistry notes form two and copper (II) chloride are green
24. Describe one method that can be used to distinguish between sodium hydrogen carbonate and
sodium hydrogen sulphate
Add distilled water to each of the salts , put red and blue litmus papers to each of the solutions ,there will no
change on blue litmus paper ,while red litmus paper turns blue when put to the solution of sodium hydrogen
carbonate,the blue litmus paper turns red and no effect on red litmus when dipped in solution of sodium hydrogen
sulphate.
25. Describe one method that can be used to distinguish between sodium hydrogen carbonate and
sodium hydrogen sulphite
Add distilled water to each of the salts , put red and blue litmus to each of the solutions ,there will no change on
blue litmus ,while red litmus turns blue when put to the solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate,the blue litmus
paper turns red and no effect on red litmus when dipped in solution of sodium hydrogen sulphite.
Common mistake most students make is that they assume that acid salts all acid salts dissolve in water to form acidic solution,
this is incorrect as acid salt means the salt has replaceable hydrogen ion, therefore aqueous solution of NaHCO3 is alkaline not
acidic, but aqueous NaHSO3 and NaHSO4 are acidic
26. Describe how you can differentiate between sodium sulphite and sodium carbonate,
Add distilled water to each of salts ,the add acidified potassium manganate(VII) to solutions of each, potassium
manganate (VII) turn from purple to colourless in sodium sulphate while the purple colour persist in sodium
carbonate
27. Describe one method that can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphate and sodium sulphite
Add distilled water to each of the salts , then add acidified barium chloride/barium nitrate ,a white precipitate will
be formed with sodium sulphate and no precipitate with sodium sulphite.
28. Describe a simple laboratory experiment that can be used to distinguish between sodium sulphide
and sodium carbonate.(3mk)
Add dilute hydrochloric√/HCl//sulphuric(VI)acid/H2SO4 to each separately.
With sodium sulphide a colourless gas with the smell of rotten eggs is evolved √.
With sodium carbonate a colourless odourless gas is evolved √.
Question on effect on salts on exposure to air,
Here the candidates need to understand on meaning of efflorescence, deliquescence and hygroscopy and
know examples of salts and substances that undergo the aforementioned processes
29. Explain why anhydrous NaOH pellets when exposed to air ,first turn into a colourless solution and
finally into a white powder
NaOH is deliquescent and absorb water from the atmosphere to form NaOH solution, the NaOH solution react with
CO2 to form hydrated sodium carbonate which is efflorescent and loses water to form anhydrous Na2CO3
30. Pellets of NaOH and anhydrous CuSO4 were put in different petri dishes and left in the open for two
hours , explain the observation that was made.
The petri dish containing NaOH had absorbed so much water from the atmosphere to form a solution ,petri dish
containing CuSO4 becomes damp and colour changed from white to blue.
Reasoning NaOH is deliquescent while CuSO4 is hygroscorpic
31. Explain the observations made when crystals of sodium carbonate decahydrate are left exposed to the
atmosphere for two days
Crystals turn to a white powder. The salt is efflorescent hence it loses its water of crystallization forming
a powder
32. Give the name of each of the processes described below which takes place when salts are exposed to air for
sometime
a) Anhydrous copper sulphate becomes damp Hydroscopy
b) Magnesium chloride forms an aqueous solution Deliquescence
c) Fresh crystals of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O become covered with white powder of formula
Na2CO3.H2O Efflorescence
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NOTE
I. Efflorescent substances (e.g. sodium carbonate decahydrate, copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate) lose
some or all of their water of crystallization when exposed to the air.
II. Hygroscopic substances (e.g. concentrated sulphuric acid, calcium oxide) absorb water
vapour/moisture from the atmosphere but do not dissolve in it.
III. deliquescence, the process by which a substance absorbs water vapour from the atmosphere until it
dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a solution. Eg of deliquescent substances include calcium
chloride,ZnCl2, FeCl3, MgCl2.
Common mistake …many students write absorb water from the atmosphere instead of water
vapour/moisture, atmosphere contains water vapour not water
33. Sodium chloride is not hygroscorpic but common salt when left to the atmosphere becomes damp,
explain,
common salt contain MgCl2 which give it the hygroscorpic properties as it absorbs water vapour from the
atmosphere making it damp,
Question on action of heat on salt
You must understand the action of heat on carbonates and nitrates ,some sulphates like ZnSO 4, CuSO4 FeSO4,
also note action of heat on (NH4)2CO3, NH4NO3,.(NH4)2SO4 and NH4Cl
NB NH4Cl undergoes l decomposition on heating to NH 3 and HCl gases,NH3 is lighter and diffuses faster Hence
the litmus first turns from red to blue, and later the HC l reaches the upper end of test-tube and turns blue litmus
red
34. A form two student was asked to prepare a sample of copper (II) sulphate crystals using the procedure below.
- Measure 100cm3 of 2M sulphuric acid then warm. Add excess copper (II) oxide powder. Filter the
resulting mixture.
- Heat the filtrate and leave it overnight.
a) Why was the acid heated before the start of the reaction?
To increase the rate of reaction
b) Why was excess copper(II) oxide used (1 mark)
To make sure that all the acid has reacted
c) What was observed when copper (II) oxide was added to the warm acid? (2 marks)
A blue solution is formed,black CuO dissolves
d) Write an equation for the reaction that took place in (c) above (1 mark)
H 2 SO4 aq CuO s
CuSO4 aq H 2Ol
e) Give reasons for carrying out the following processes
i. Filtration of the mixture (1 mark)
To eliminate excess//unreacted CuO
ii. Heating the filtrate and leaving it overnight (2 marks)
To drive out//evaporate some H2O and for the saturated solution to cool and form crystals.
f) Explain how dry crystals of copper (II) sulphate are finally obtained. (1 mark)
Wet crystals were dried between filter papers.
g) State and explain the observations that would be made when concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid is added
to the crystals formed in (f) above in a test tube.(2 marks)
Blue crystals turn to white powder
Exp; Conc H2SO4 is a dehydrates CuSO4 x H20 crystals to anhydrous CuSO4.
h) Write the formula of the complex ion formed with excess ammonia solution is added to copper (II)
sulphate solution.
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2
Cu NH 3 4
aq
Explain why it would not be possible to prepare copper sulphate salt by reaction of dilute sulphuric (VI)
acid with copper metal?
Copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series and so cannot displace it from the acid
Reversed salt preparation. Is such questions you might be required to describe how to obtain a metal oxide or a metal
from a salt solution , you can heat the salt solution to dryness, then heat the dry salt to decompose to metal oxide, you
can also add a soluble carbonate then heat the carbonate strongly . To obtain the metal oxide ,to obtain a metal then you
can reduce the oxide( while hot) with carbon (II) oxide metal to obtain metal.
35. Starting with Zinc sulphate solution ,describe how a sample of zinc oxide can be obtained from a
solution of Zinc (II) Sulphate
Add soluble Sodium carbonate /add NaOH
Filter out the Zinc carbonate /filter the Zn(OH)2 / heat strongly the Zn(OH)2/ZnCO3 to decompose it to form ZnO
Or heat to evaporate the water to obtain ZnSO4 solid
Heat ZnSO4 solid strongly to decompose to form ZnO
36. Describe how you can obtain lead metal from lead(II) carbonate
Heat the PbCO3 strongly in a crucible to decompose to PbO, pass hydrogen gas/CO over the hot PbO to reduce
it to lead metal
37. Describe how you can obtain MgO from Magnesium Sulphate solution
Add aqueous Sodium carbonate to aqueous Magnesium Sulphate to precipitate MgCO3. Filter out the
magnesium carbonate , heat strongly the MgCO3 in a crucible to decompose it to form MgO
38. Starting with solid Aluminium Sulphate, describe how a solid sample of Aluminium hydroxide could
be prepared. (3mks)
Add distilled water to Aluminium Sulphate to dissolve. When preparing Al(OH)3, or Pb(OH)2 aqueous NaOH
√½ can not be used because the amphoteric Al(OH)3, or
Add aqueous ammonia hydroxide √ to Pb(OH)2 will dissolve in excess, hence aqueous
Aluminium Sulphate solution, to precipitate Aluminum ammonia is the suitable alkali to use.
hydroxide, Filter. √½,Wash the residue with distilled water.
Dry it between filter papers √½
39. Starting with lead metal, describe how a solid sample of lead (II) hydroxide could be prepared. (3mks
Add excess lead metal to dilute Nitric (V) acid to form Pb(NO 3)2, filter , Add aqueous ammonia hydroxide
solution√ to
The filtrate, to precipitate lead (II) hydroxide, Filter. √½, Wash the residue with distilled water. Dry it between filter
papers √½
40. Describe how a solid sample of Zinc (II) carbonate can be prepared starting with zinc oxide(3mk)
Add excess zinc oxide to dilute HCl, H 2SO4 / HNO3√., Filter√½ to remove excess zinc oxide., Add Na2CO3 ,K2CO3
solution to the filtrate√½.Filter√½.Wash the residue with distilled water. Dry between filter papers√½.
PREPARATION OF DOUBLE SALTS
Double salt are prepared by mixing two soluble salts which react to form the double salt, usually a complex salt preparation of
ammonium iron (II) sulphate; this salt is prepared by mixing ammonium sulphate solution with iron (II) sulphate solution, then
you evaporate the resulting solution to saturation and allowing it to cool to form crystals then filter and dry the crystal be tween
filter papers. In a normal examination set up the starter reagent determines the procedure to use e.g
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41. Describe how a solid sample of the double salt. Ammonium iron (II) Sulphate can be prepared using
the following reagents, aqueous ammonia, sulphuric (VI) acid and iron metal
Add iron metal to dilute sulphuric (VI) acid to form iron (II) Sulphate, add aqueous ammonia to sulphuric (VI)
acid to form Ammonium Sulphate; mix the two solutions a of iron (II) Sulphate and Ammonium Sulphate to
form a solution of Ammonium iron (II) Sulphate; heat to evaporation the solution until crystallization starts, filter
to obtain the double salt.
42. Starting with calcium and dilute nitric (V) acid and ammonia describe how a solid sample of calcium
ammonium nitrate can be prepared
Add calcium metal to dilute nitric (V) acid to form calcium nitrate solution, react aqueous ammonia with nitric
(V) acid to form Ammonium nitrate solution; mix the two solutions of calcium nitrate and Ammonium nitrate to
form a solution of calcium ammonium nitrate; evaporation the solution until crystallization starts, filter to obtain
the double salt
43. Describe how a solid sample of the double salt. Ammonium Aluminium Sulphate can be prepared
using the following reagents, aqueous ammonia, sulphuric (VI) acid and Aluminium metal:
Add Aluminium metal with dilute sulphuric (vi) acid to form Aluminium Sulphate, add aqueous ammonia with
sulphuric (VI) acid to form ammonium Sulphate; mix the two solutions of Aluminium Sulphate and ammonium
Sulphate to form a solution of ammonium Aluminium Sulphate; heat to evaporation the solution until
crystallization starts, filter to obtain the double salt.
44. Hydrated cobalt(II)chloride exist as pink crystals and anhydrous cobalt(II)chloride is a blue powder.
Describe a laboratory experiment that can be used to show that the action of heat on hydrated
cobalt(II)chloride is a reversible reaction. (3mk)
Heat the pink hydrated salt in a sealed container. √
Pink substance changes to blue. √ ½
Collect any vapour and cool it to condense. √ ½
Add the condensed liquid to the blue solid. √ ½
It turns back to pink. √ ½
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CHAPTER SIX: EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT OMN SUBSTANCES
DEFINITIONS
Electrolysis –refers to decomposition of an electrolyte into its constituent ions by passing an electric
current through it
Electrolyte –a solution or a melt of a compound that allows an electric current to pass through it and it
decomposed by it. Some electrolytes are weak while others are strong.
Strong electrolytes are those that are fully ionized/dissociated into (many) ions. Common strong
electrolytes include:
i. all mineral acids : dilute HCl ,HNO3, H2SO4
ii. all strong alkalis/sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
Weak electrolytes are those that are partially/partly ionized/dissociated into (few) ions. Common weak
electrolytes include:
i. All organic acids
ii. All bases except sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide.
iii. Water
Non electrolyte –solutions or melts that do not conduct an electric current. Non-electrolytes are those
compounds /substances that exist as molecules and thus cannot ionize/dissociate into (any) ions.
Common non-electrolytes include:
i. Most organic solvents (e.g. petrol/paraffin/benzene/methylbenzene/ethanol)
ii. All hydrocarbons (alkanes /alkenes/alkynes)
iii. Chemicals of life (e.g. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, starch, sugar)
Conductors these are substances that allow electric current to pass through them.eg. all metals (
copper, zinc ,sodium ,magnesium ,aluminum etc) and graphite.
Non conductor are substances that do not allow electric current to pass through them e.g. rubber,
wood ,plastic, Sulphur , sand etc.
Electricity –this refers to flow of current
Current –flow of charged particle (electrons or ions)
Electrode –graphite or metal rod dipped in an electrolyte to complete the circuit. An electrode that does
not influence/alter the products of electrolysis is called an inert electrode. Common inert electrodes
include:
i. Platinum
ii. Carbon graphite
Platinum is not usually used in a school laboratory because it is very expensive. Carbon graphite is
easily/readily and cheaply available (from used dry cells).
Cathode –electrode connected to the negative terminal
-electrode over which reduction takes place
Anode –electrode connected to the positive terminal
-electrode over which oxidation takes place.
Cation –positively charged ion
Anion –negatively charged ion
INTRODUCTION
Ionic compounds –conduct heat and electricity because they contain mobile ions, however ionic compounds do
not conduct electricity in solid state because the ions are fixed./not mobile
When an electric current is passing through an electrolyte the compound decomposes to constituent ions
The cations move to the anode, gain electrons and become discharged. The anions go to the anode and lose
electrons and become discharged
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Electrolysis of binary compounds
Binary compound is a compound made of only two ions in molten form
\\\\
+ -ve Switch
bulb
Anode
-ve
Cathode
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN LEAD (II) CHLORIDE
When an electric current is passing through molten lead (ii) chloride it decomposes to Pb2+ and 2Cl- ions
Reaction at the electrodes
Cathode reaction
Lead ions move to the cathode and gain two electrons and become discharged
Pb 2e Pb( s )
Anode reaction
Chlorine ions move to the anode lose electrons and become discharged to form chlorine gas
2Cl(l )
Cl2( g ) 2e
State and explain the observation at the cathode
At the cathode
A grey solid is deposited. This is due to discharge of pb2+ to lead metal which is grey in colour
At the anode
A green gas is evolved at the anode. This is due to discharge of Cl- to chlorine gas which is green in
colour.
Uses of electrolysis
Anodizing of Aluminum
Electroplating -this is coating of a metal with another metal using electric current
Extraction of very reactive metals like sodium and aluminum from molten ores.
Purification of metals e.g. copper
Sacrificial protection
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Binary compound Reaction at Anode reaction Observation at the electrodes
cathode
Molten NaCl Na+ + e- Na(s) 2Cl- Cl2(g) +2e Cathode – grey solid deposited
Anode –green yellow gas
Molten Al2O3 Al3+b+3e Al(s) 2O2- O2(g) +2e Cathode – grey solid deposited
Anode –colourless gas that relights a
glowing splint
Molten CuCl2
Molten MgO
Molten PbBr2
Molten MgCl2
Molten CuO
Molten CaCl2
Molten PbO
REVISION QUESTIONS ON EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON
SUBSTANCES
1. The set-up was used to electrolyzed Lead (II) bromide. Study it and answer the questions that follow;
Bulb
Anode
Cathode
Molten Lead (II) Carbon electrode
bromide
a) Write an ionic equation for the reaction that occurred at the cathode and anode
b) State and explain what happened at the anode and cathode
2. When an electric current was passed through two molten substances E and F in separate
voltammeters. The observations recorded below were made: -
Substance Observation Type of structure
E Conducts electric current and a gas is formed at one of
the electrodes
F Conducts an electric current and is not decomposed
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Complete the table above
3. a). Differentiate the following terms: Electrolyte and non-electrolyte
b). The diagram below is a set-up used to investigate the conductivity of electric current by some
aqueous solution. Study it and answer the questions that follow;
Bulb
Beaker
Graphite
rods Substance to be tested
a) i). State the observation made on the bulb when each of the following solution were put onto the beaker
Sugar solution
Salt solution
ii). Classify the substance in (a) (i) above as either electrolyte or non-electrolyte
b) If in the above set-up of apparatus, the substance to be tested is Lead (II) Bromide
i). What modification should be included in the set-up?
ii). Write an Ionic equation at the electrodes and state the observation: -
Anode
Cathode
4. The diagram below shows the set up used to investigate the effect of an electric current on
molten lead (II) bromide
a) Explain what happens to the lead II bromide during electrolysis
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b) Why is it important to carry out the experiment in a fume chamber?
5. The diagram show an experiment for investigating electrical conduction in lead (II) fluoride.
Study it and answer the questions that follow:
Lead (II) fluoride
a) On the diagram
i. Label the anode and the cathode
ii. Show the direction of movement of electrons
b) Complete the diagram by indicating the condition that is missing but must be present for electrical
conduction to take place.
c) Why is it necessary to leave a gap between the cork and the boiling tube?
d) State the observations that are expected at the electrodes during electrical conduction and at the
experiment
e) Write equations for the reactions that take place at the electrodes
f) Why should this experiment be carried out in a fume chamber?
6. The table below shows the electrical conductivity of substance A, B and C
Substance Solid state Molten state Aqueous solution
A Conducts Conducts Not soluble
B Doesn’t conduct Conducts Conducts
C Doesn’t conduct Doesn’t conduct Not soluble
a) Which one of the substances is likely to be plastic?
b) Explain why the substance you have given in (a) above behaves in the way it does
c) Which of the substances is likely to be sodium chloride? Explain
d) Give the type of structure and bonding that is present in substance A
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7. Study the diagram below and use it to answer the questions that follow:-
A Heat B Lead (II) bromide
a) Identify electrodes A and B
b) Name the product formed at the anode
c) Write the electrode half equation of reaction at electrode A
8. Explain the differences in electrical conductivity between melted sodium chloride and liquid
mercury
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CHAPTER SEVEN: CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Specific Objectives
a) By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to
b) define allotropy and allotrope
c) explain the physical properties of the carbon allotropes in terms of bonding and how the properties are
related to the uses of the allotropes
d) describe some chemical properties of carbon
e) describe laboratory preparation and properties of carbon (IV) Oxide
f) state and explain the physical and chemical properties of carbon(IV) Oxide
g) describe laboratory preparation and some properties of Carbon (II) Oxide
h) describe the chemical reactions of carbonates and hydrogen carbonate
i) describe the manufacture of sodium carbonate
j) explain the advantages and disadvantages of Carbon(IV) oxide and carbon(II) oxide gases in the
atmosphere
k) explain the importance of carbon compounds in the natural environment and industry.
Carbon cycle
Soft drinks manufacture
Fire extinguishers
The effects of Carbon(IV) oxide and carbon(Il) oxide on the environment
INTRODUCTION
Carbon is a non-metal element with four electrons in its outer most energy level
It has a valency of 4 and usually forms covalent bonds when combining with other elements ,this is
because a lot of energy is involved to gain or lose four electrons hence forms compounds by sharing
electrons.
Has a unique property in that its atoms are bonded together to form long chains. This property is called
catenation
Carbon allotropy –allotropy is the ability of an element to have different crystalline forms but in the
same physical state
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Allotropes –these are different crystalline forms of the same element but in same physical state
There are three main allotropes of carbon
i. Graphite
ii. Diamond
iii. Fullerene/Buckminsterfullerene
Structure, properties and uses of graphite and diamond were tackled under structure and bondin
So, in this section we are only going to discuss the third allotrope; Fullerene
FULLERENE/BUCKMINSTERFULLERENES
A fullerene is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes.
Spherical fullerenes, also referred to as or buckyballs, resemble the balls used in association football. Cylindrical
fullerenes are also called carbon nanotubes(buckytubes). Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is
composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings. Unless they are cylindrical, they must also
contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings
Note :The discoverers of
the Buckminsterfullerene (C60) allotrope of carbon named it after Richard
Buckminster Fuller.
As the discovery of the fullerene family came after buckminsterfullerene, the
shortened name 'fullerene' is used to refer to the family of fullerenes. The suffix
"-ene" indicates that each C atom is covalently bonded to three others (instead of
the maximum of four), a situation that classically would correspond to the
existence of double covalent bonds
Buckminsterfullerene C60
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OTHER FORMS OF CARBON AND THEIR USES
Animal charcoal,wood charcoal, sugar charcoal ,coke ,soot and lamp black are other forms of carbon
without definite crystalline structures.they are called Amorphous carbon
These are form of carbon which do not have distinctive shapes like diamond and graphite.
These are minute fragments of graphite
Properties of amorphous carbon
Fairly good conductor of electricity due to presence of graphite
The charcoal is amorphous light and porous
Uses of amorphous carbon
Animals charcoal is used to absorb the brown coloring matter in brown sugar which is then turned to
white
Lamp black is used to make shoe polish ,printing ink,paint and reinforcing rubber
Used as a reducing agent in extraction of metals
Charcoal are used as fuel for domestic use.
Physical Properties of carbon
i. It occurs widely as a black solid.
ii. Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
iii. It is poor conductor except the allotrope of graphite.
Chemical Properties of carbon
a) combustion
Carbon burn in air with a red glow to give:
carbon (iv) oxide in plenty of air
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2(g)
Carbon burns in limited air to form carbon (II) oxide
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g)
carbon (II) oxide and carbon (iv) oxide are also formed during burning of charcoal in a jiko.
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In part A there is sufficient supply of air therefore carbon burns completely to form carbon (IV) oxide
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2(g)
In part B CO2 is reduced by hot carbon (charcoal) forming carbon (II) oxide
CO2(s) + C (s) 2COg)
In part C the CO burns in oxygen to form carbon (IV) oxide
CO(s) + O2 (g) 2CO2g)
NB:A Charcoal stove should not be used in poorly ventilated room since the carbon (IV) Oxide produced will be
reduced by hot charcoal to CO which is highly poisonous.
b) Carbon as a reducing agent.
Carbon reduces hot metal oxides to form corresponding metal and carbon (iv) oxide gas
2 PbO( s ) C( s )
2 Pb( s ) CO2 ( g )
2CuO( s ) C( s )
2 Cu( s ) CO2 ( g )
2 ZnO( s ) C( s )
2 Zn( s ) CO2 ( g )
2 Fe2O3( s ) 3C s
4 Fe( s ) 3CO2 ( g )
Reaction with concentrated Nitric (V) acid and sulphuric (V) acid.
It is oxidized by these acids to form carbon (IV) oxide.
C(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) +2H2O(l)
Observations
black solid dissolves
A gas with a pungent smell is produced
C + 4HNO3 CO2 + 4NO2 +2H2O
Observations
brown fumes of nitrogen (IV) oxide produced
Black solid dissolves
OXIDES OF CARBON
There are two oxides of carbon;
Carbon (II) oxide and Carbon (IV) oxide
CARBON (IV) OXIDE
Laboratory preparation
carbon (IV) oxide is prepared in the laboratory by reacting a carbonate with a suitable acid, preferably Calcium
carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid
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laboratory preparation of preparation carbon (iv) oxide
Sodium hydrogen carbonate or water absorbs traces of HCl fumes and concentrated H 2SO4 dries the gas
The gas is collected by downward delivery as it is denser than air.
CaCO3( s ) 2HCl( aq ) CaCl2 S CO2( g ) H 2Ol
Dried by conc. H2SO4 or CaCl2
Note .CaCO3 and dilute H2SO4 cannot be used to prepare CO2 due to formation of insoluble CaSO4 which
coats the carbonate preventing further reaction between the acid and carbonate. For the same reason
PbCO3 and dilute HCl, BaCO3 /PbCO3 and dilute H2SO4 cannot be used. CaCO3 is preferably used because it
is cheap and easily available
Physical Properties of carbon (IV) oxide
Colourless and odourless
Slightly soluble in water
Denser than air hence collected by downward delivery
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE
a) Extinguishes a burning splint because it does not burn and does not support combustion
b) Reaction with water
Reacts with water forming weak carbonic acid
CO2( g ) H 2O(l ) H 2CO3( aq )
Carbon (IV) oxide changes moist blue litmus paper red.
c) Reaction with lime water (calcium hydroxide)
If carbon (IV) is bubbled through Lime water it forms a white precipitate. If more CO2 is bubbled through the white
precipitate , the white precipitate dissolves to form a colourless solution, the white precipitate reappears on heating.
This is confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide
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Explanation: when carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled through lime water, it reacts to form insoluble CaCO3 (white
precipitate) which reacts with more of carbon (IV) oxide to form Ca (HCO3)2 on heating the Ca (HCO3)2
decomposes to give out insoluble CaCO3 as a white precipitate.
Ca OH 2 aq CO2 g
CaCO3( s ) H 2O(l )
Ca HCO3 2 ( aq )
CaCO3( s ) H 2O(l ) CO2 g
Ca HCO3 2 s
heat
CaCO3( s ) CO2 ( g ) H 2O(l )
Raction with alkalis
CO2 reacts with alkalis forming corresponding carbonates, but if excess CO 2 is bubbled through alkali metal
hydrogen carbonate is formed
2 NaOH CO2
Na2CO3( s ) H 2O(l )
Na2CO3( s ) H 2O(l ) CO2 g
2 NaHCO3( aq )
)
2 KOH aq CO2 g
K 2CO3( s ) H 2O(l )
K 2CO3( s ) H 2O(l ) CO2 g
2 KHCO3( aq
d) Reaction with burning elements
When burning magnesium is lowered into a gas jar full of CO2 it continues to burn. Forming white solid
and black specs of carbon. This is because the heat produced by a burning magnesium is so high that it
decomposes CO2 into carbon and oxygen gas which oxidizes the metal to white magnesium oxide and carbon (IV)
oxide is reduced to carbon (black solid
Observations: white solid and black specs of carbon are formed
CO2 ( g )
heat from hot Mg
C( s ) O2 ( g )
Mg ( s ) O2( g )
MgO( s )
Overall equation
2Mg ( s ) CO2( g )
2MgO( s ) C( s )
Uses of carbon (IV) oxide
In manufacture of baking powder. Baking powder contain sodium hydrogen carbonate and a solid acid
such as tartaric acid. these compounds react together in presence of water to form carbon (IV) oxide.
further gas is produced during cooking due to decomposition of NaHCO 3.in presence of heat in bread
making yeast causes carbon (IV) oxide to be produced causing the dough to swell
Carbonate’s derivatives
Manufacture of sodium carbonate in Solvay process
Used in soft drinks e.g soda . in these drinks the gas is dissolved under pressure.
Used in Fire extinguishers since it is denser than air and does not support combustion.
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As a refrigerant (as in dry ice because it is very cold and sublimes leaving no residue and does not
Roles of CO2 in soft drinks;
Acts as a preservative
It gives taste/adds flavor
When a bottle containing soft drink is opened there is effervescence/ bubbles of a gas is observed as CO2
dissolved under pressure is released
What is the role of tartaric acid in baking powder?
Tartaric acid reacts with NaHCO3 in the baking powder in presence of water to produce carbon (IV) oxide causing
the dough to rise
cause wetness)Making rain during drought in little rain drop
When cooking mandazi using baking powder the dough rises when put in a frying pan
explain.
Baking powder contains NaHCO3, so when the dough is put in a frying pan the NaHCO3 decomposes on
heating to produce carbon (IV) oxide and it is the CO2 which makes the dough to rise as it forces its way
out. That is why mandazi always have cracks.
What is the role of tartaric acid in baking powder?
Tartaric acid reacts with NaHCO3 in the baking powder in presence of water producing carbon (IV) oxide which
makes the dough to rise.
State the properties of carbon (IV) oxide that make it suitable to be used in fire extinguishers
it is denser than air
it does not burn
it doesn’t support burning
it is not poisonous
Fire extinguishers
Carbon (IV) oxide is used to put out fires especially those caused by petrol. Oil and electricity. If water is used to
put out oil fires, the burning oil will float on the water. This means that the fire would continue to burn on the surface.
Carbon (IV) oxide is used to put out electric fires since water conducts electricity.
Types of fire extinguishers
Soda acid extinguisher- contains sodium hydrogen carbonate at the bottom and dilute sulphuric (VI)
acid on top. The two react to produce carbon (IV) oxide
Foam extinguisher. Contains NaHCO3 solution and Aluminium sulphate which is acidic when these two
react they form a foam of CO2.
Carbon (IV) oxide extinguisher contains liquid carbon (IV) oxide under pressure.
CARBON (II) OXIDE
Laboratory preparation of Carbon (II) oxide
1. Preparation from methanoic acid
Action of concentrated sulphuric acid on methanoic acid/ethanedioc acid
HCOOH (l )
CO( g ) H 2O(l )
conc . H 2SO4
Sodium methanolate can also replace methanoic acid
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HCOONa( s ) H 2 SO4l
NaHSO4 aq CO( g ) H 2O(l )
NB: concentrated Sulphuric (VI) acid acts as a dehydrating agent.
2. Preparation from Ethanedioc acid (oxalic acid)
When oxalic acid is used both carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II) oxide gases are produced and the gases are
passed through a concentrate solution of a strong alkali NaOH, KOH or Ca(OH)2 to absorb co2
H 2C2O4 s
conc . H 2 SO4
CO2 g CO g H 2Ol
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3. Preparation from carbon (IV) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide is prepared from reduction of carbon (IV) oxide by carbon:the excess carbon (IV) oxide is
removed by passing the gases through concentrated sodium hydroxide/potassium hydroxide
hydroxide
Properties of carbon (II) oxide
Colourless, odourless gas
Density is slightly lower than air
It is insoluble in water so it is collected over water
Tasteless
NB: CO is is known as silent killer because it is odourless and colourless.
Chemical properties of carbon (II) oxide
a) Neutral to litmus papers
b) Burning in air
carbon (II) oxide burns in air with a blue flame forming carbon (IV) oxide
2CO O2(g ) 2CO2(g )
c) carbon (II) oxide as a reducing
agent
Reduces metal oxides of less reactive
elements to free metals
PbO (s ) CO ( g )
Pb (s ) CO 2 ( g )
Fe 2O 3s CO g
Fe 2O 3 (s ) CO 2 g
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Reacts with iron metal to form carboxyls
Fe(s) + 5CO (g) Fe (CO) 5 (pentacarboxyl iron)
The carbon (II) oxide is highly poisonous.
It combines with haemoglobin, unstable compound is formed which prevents oxygen from being circulated in the
body hence suffocation and eventually death result
Uses of carbon (II) oxide
Widely used in manufacture of alcohol
Extraction of less reactive metals from their ores
Used as a fuel
Differences between carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II) oxide
CO2 CO
Forms white precipitate with lime water No reaction with lime water
No reaction with metallic oxides Reduces metal oxide to metals
Not poisonous Very poisonous
Soluble in water and alkali In soluble in water and alkali
Acidic Neutral
LARGE SCALE MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM CARBONATES (NA2CO3)(SODA ASH)
It is obtained in large scale in two methods
From trona
Through Solvay process
EXTRACTION FROM TRONA
Is a double salt with formula Na2CO3.NaHCO3.2H2O. Trona is extracted using bucket dredgers and then
crushed. The crushed trona is washed with water to remove mud and small rocks. It is then centrifuged to
remove water of crystallization. It is then roasted in a kiln at 300oC to decompose to Na2CO3 as follows. This
process is called thermal decomposition.
NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .2 H 2O s
Na2CO3. NaHCO3( s ) H 2O(l )
At centrifuge
Na2CO3 .NaHCO3 s
Na2CO3 s H 2O(l ) CO2 ( g )
Na2CO3 is then grinded and bagged for storage and transportation
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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR EXTRACTION OF SODIUM CARBONATE FROM TRONA
Mud and rocks
Trona is mined by Washing
Trona from lake bucket dredger
Wet
trona
Grinding and
Sodium carbonate Centrifuge
sieving
Bagging and Dry
Kiln Water
storage trona
After removal of trona from the lake, a solution which is rich in sodium chloride remains. the solution is then
pumped into shallow basins where evaporation takes place until the percentage of sodium chloride is 14% , then
the solution is transferred to another basin and cooled to crystalize .
The solution which contains both trona and sodium chloride is separated by fractional crystallization.
During the day, when the temperature is about 400C and trona crystallizes and is removed . The solubility of
Sodium Chloride is high at high temperatures therefore during the day it dissolves while at night when the
temperature is about 200C sodium chloride crystallizes and is removed.
Effects of heat on carbonates and hydrogen carbonates refer to salts
SOLVAY PROCESS
Raw materials needed
Brine Ammonia
CaCO3 Coke
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR MANUFACTURE OF TRONA THROUGH SOLVAY PROCESS
Brine
Carbon (IV) oxide
(IV) Kiln
Ammoniacal (III) Solvay tower/carbonator Coke, limestone, air
Baffles
brine NaCl(aq) +NH 3(g) CO 2(g) H 2 O(l) Reactions
NH 4 Cl(aq) NaHCO3(s) C(s) +O2(g)
CO2(g)
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) +CO2(g)
NH4Cl(aq) NaHCO3(s)
Ammonia CaO
Ammonia
1. First
Filter Slaker Water
NH 4 Cl(aq)
(II) Ammonia generator absorption
Ca(OH) 2(aq) +2NH 4 Cl(aq) NaHCO3(s) tower
CaCl2(s) 2NH 3(g) +2H 2 O(l)
Ca(OH)2 (tower I)
CaCl2(s)byproduct
Roaster :2NaHCO3(s)
heat
Na 2CO3(s) CO2(g) H 2O(l)
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Ammonia is mixed with brine to form ammoniacal brine. The absorption tower is fitted with baffles. which allow the
liquids trickle down slowly to allow more time for proper mixing with gases. The baffles also increase the surface
area for gases to dissolve in the liquids.
2. Ammonia Generator
Ammonia is generated by reacting ammonium Chloride from Solvay tower with calcium hydroxide from the slaker.
2NH 4Cl (aq ) Ca OH 2 aq
CaCl 2 (aq ) 2NH 3 ( g ) H 2O ( l )
CaCl2 is the only a byproduct in this process and is widely used as a drying agent.
3. Carbonator/Second Absorption Tower
Carbonator is where the main reaction takes place, Reaction takes place in two stages as follows
NH 3 g H 2Ol CO2 g
NH 4 HCO3 aq (this reaction occurs in upper part of Solvay tower)
NH 4CO3 ( aq ) NaCl( aq )
NaHCO3 s NH 4Cl( aq (this reaction occurs in lower part of Solvay tower)
Overall equation
NaCl( aq ) NH 3( g ) CO( g ) H 2O l
NaHCO3( s ) NH 4Cl( aq )
NH4Cl is more soluble than NaHCO3. These salts are separated through filtration where NaHCO3 is obtained as a
residue while NH4Cl is obtained as a filtrate. NH4Cl is taken to ammonia generator. Fractional crystallization can
also be used to separate the salts because NaHCO3 is less soluble under low temperatures.
NaHCO3 is roasted to obtain Na2CO3
NaHCO3 S
heat
Na2CO3( aq ) H 2O(l ) CO2 ( g )
NOTE: The reaction in the carbonator is highly exothermic hence water is made to circulate around the
carbonator to cool the products. This ensures that NaHCO3 crystallizes out since it is less soluble at low
temperature.
4. Chamber four calcium carbonate kiln
Carbon (IV) oxide is generated in two ways
CaCO3 s
heat
CaO( S ) CO2( g )
C s coke O2 g
CO2( g )
Solvay process is regarded as one of the most economical process because most of the byproducts like ammonia
and carbon (IV) oxide are recycled. The raw materials are cheap and the only by-product is calcium chloride which
is widely used a drying agent for laboratory gases.
CaO is slaked with water to form Ca(OH)2 which is directed to ammonia generator to form ammonia
NB: problems student face
Most students do not know what reacts at ammonia generator
Most students confuse the second chamber (carbonator) with the fourth chamber (limestone kiln)
Predicted questions
Name two uses of CaCl2
fused CaCl2 Used as a drying agent for gases
Used in extraction of sodium metal to lower the boiling point
Name two uses of Na2CO3
Used in manufacture of glass
Manufacture of detergents
Used in paper industry
Used in softening hard water
Name two uses of NaHCO3
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Use in manufacture of baking soda
Used in manufacture of aerated drinks
Give reasons why the Solvay plant should be located near a river
Water is a raw material
Water is needed as a coolant as the reaction in the Solvay tower is highly exothermic
Name two materials recycled in the Solvay process
Ammonia and carbon (IV) oxide
Give the advantage of recycling
It minimizes production/running cost
It minimizes pollution
State two costs incurred in running the plant
Power cost
Maintenance cost
Explain why K2CO3 is not preferably prepared using this method.
This is because the KHCO3 is highly soluble at lower temperature hence will not precipitate/be difficult to separate
from NH4Cl . KHCO3 has similar solubility to NH4Cl at the same temperatures therefore difficult to separate.
Name two methods used to separate the products at the Solvay tower
Fractional crystallization
Filtration
Explain why Solvay process is considered as a very economical process
Raw materials are cheap
Most of the byproducts like CO2 and ammonia are recycled
POLLUTION EFFECT BY CARBON AND CARBON COMPOUNDS
a) Carbon (IV) oxide from burning fuels accumulates in the upper atmosphere and forms a layer that traps
heat energy reflected from the earth raising air temperatures. This is called global warming
Global warming leads to melting of glaciers and ice caps leading to climatic changes
b) Carbon (II) oxide is very poisonous gas and lead to suffocation leading to death of animals by combining
with haemoglobin to form a very stable compound called caboxyhaemoglobin which does not dissociate
c) to release oxygen hence leads to suffocation
Note: Green house effect as a pollution effect of CO2, is a very weak point and does not SCORE (for
examination) but increased green house gases leads to global warming which is the scoring point. The effect of
CO2 to bring about acid rain may not also score as carbonic acid is a very weak acid
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REVISION QUESTION ON CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Below is a simplified scheme of Solvay process. Study it and answer the questions that follow
Ammonia
Process I Process II Process III
Brine
Gas T Sodium carbonate
a) Identify gas T
b) Write equation for the reaction that takes place in process II and III
2. The diagram below shows the stages in the manufacture of sodium carbonate .study the diagram below
and use it to answer the questions that follow
a) Name three starting materials in the manufacture of sodium carbonate
b) Which substances are recycled in this process
c) identify the chambers in which the recycled substances are renegerated
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d) Name the substances V and Q
e) Give an equation for the reaction which occurs:
i. In the reaction chamber I
ii. When solid V is heated
iii. In the reaction chamber 3
f) State one commercial use for sodium carbonate
3. Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow
Brine Ammoniated brine
Q
P
Ammonia
CaCl2 NH4Cl
T
R
Substance Y
Water
NaHCO3
Slaker
Na2CO3
Heat
CaCO3
CaO
Substance X
(a) Name the substances labelled:(2 marks)
X………………………………………………………………………………………
Y………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Name 2 substances being recycled in the process represented by the flow chart. (2 marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Name the process that takes place in: (2 marks)
S.……………………………………………………………………………………………
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R……………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Give 2 uses of calcium chloride. (1 mark)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(e) Write equations for the reaction that take place in (2 marks)
Q
(f) Other than softening of hard water give 2 other uses of sodium carbonate (1 mark)
4. The flow chart below shows the stages in the industrial manufacture of sodium carbonate. Study it and
answer the questions that follow.
Na2CO3
CO2
2
Step
Brine
Step 1
NaHCO3
L and
K NaHCO3
L
Ca(OH)2 Step
3
Limestone
Water
G
a) Name
K…………………………………. ………………………………………………..
L……………………………………………………………………………………..
G…………………………………… …………..................................................... (3 marks)
b) What is the name given to industrial manufacture of sodium carbonate (1 mark)
c) Write the equations of reaction taking place in step I (2 marks)
d) How is step 2 achieved (1 mark)
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e) State how the products in step 1 are separated (2 marks)
f) This process is said to be very efficient. Explain this(2 marks)
g) Using dots and crosses show how the bonding of carbon (IV) oxide is achieved (atomic numbers C- 6,
O-8) (2 marks)
5. The flow chart below shows how sodium carbonate is manufactured by the solvary process. Study it and
answer the questions that follow;
Limestone, solid A and Air Solid B Chamber I Water
Ca(OH)2(aq)
Chamber III Gas P Chamber II CaCl2(aq)
Filtrate D
Ammoniacal brine Chamber IV Solid R
Chamber V
Gas X
a) Name the following substances; (3 marks)
i. Gas P ……………………………………………………………………………..
ii. Gas X ……………………………………………………………………………..
iii. Solid A ……………………………………………………………………………..
iv. Solid B ……………………………………………………………………………..
v. Filtrate D ……………………………………………………………………………..
vi. Solid R ……………………………………………………………………………..
b) Write chemical equations for the reactions that occur in;
chamber I (1 mark)
Chamber II (1 mark)
c) Name two gases that are recycled in the above process (2 marks)
d) Give one use of sodium carbonate (1 mark)
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6. Both graphite and molten lead (II) chloride conduct electricity. State how each of the substances
conducts electricity.
a) Graphite (1 mark)
b) Molten lead (II) chloride (1 mark)
7. When a salt T is heated, a black solid is left and a colourless gas which forms a white precipitate with
calcium hydroxide solution is evolved. Identify T and write an equation for the decomposition. (2 marks)
8. What is meant by the term allotropy? Give an example of an element that exhibits allotropy. (1mk)
9. Give a reason why calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon (IV) oxide gas while
sodium hydroxide solution is NOT (1 mark)
10. A sample of air contaminated with carbon (II) oxide and sulphur (VI) oxide was passed through the
apparatus shown in the diagram below.
Which contaminant was removed by passing the contaminated air through the
Apparatus. Explain (2 marks)
11. Explain how you would obtain solid sodium carbonate from a mixture of lead carbonate and sodium carbonate
powders. (3 marks)
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12. When extinguishing a fire caused by burning kerosene, carbon (IV) oxide is used in preference to water
.Explain
13. When excess carbon (II) oxide gas was passed over heated lead (II) oxide in combustion tube, lead (II)
oxide was reduced
a) Write an equation for the reaction, which took place
b) What observation was made in the combustion tube when the reaction was complete?
c) Name another gas, which could be used to reduce lead (II) oxide
14. The simplified flow chart shows some of the steps in the manufacture of sodium carbonate by the Solvay
process
L Carbon
(IV) oxide Ammonium chloride
Ammonium Chloride
and sodium hydrogen
Brine carbonate Step II
Sodium hydrogen
Step 1
carbonate
Step III
Sodium carbonate
a) Identify substance L
b) Name the process – taking place in step II
c) Write an equation for the reaction, which takes place in step III
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15. Use the scheme below to answer the questions that follow
Carbon (IV) oxide
Solid H
H2O
Heat Solid J Ca (OH)2(aq)
a) Identify the solid
H ........................................................................................................................ .....
J .............................................................................................................................
b) State one commercial use of solid J
16. In an experiment, carbon (IV) oxide gas as passed over heated charcoal and the gas produced collected as shown
in the diagram below
Carbon (IV)
oxide
a) Write an equation for the reaction that took place in the combustion tube
b) Name another substance that can be used instead of sodium hydroxide
c) Describe a sample chemical test that can be used to distinguish between carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II)
oxide
d) Give one use of carbon (II) oxide
17. When the oxide of element H was heated with powdered carbon the mixture glowed and carbon (IV) oxide was
formed. When the experiment was repeated using the oxide of element J, there was no apparent reaction.
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a) Suggest one method that can be used to extract element J from its oxide
b) Arrange the elements H, J and carbon in the order of their decreasing creativity.
18. The apparatus shown below shown below was used to investigate the effect of carbon (II) oxide on copper
(II) oxide.
a) State the observation that was made in the combustion tube at the end of the experiment.
b) Write an equation for the reaction that took place in the combustion tube
c) Why is it necessary to burn the gas coming out of tube K?
19. When carbon (IV) oxide gas was passed through aqueous calcium hydroxide a white precipitate was
formed
a) Write an equation for the reaction that took place
b) State and explain the changes that would occur when carbon (IV) oxide gas is bubbled through the white
suspension
20. a). Candle wax is mainly a compound consisting of two elements. Name the two elements (2 marks)
b). The set- up below was used to investigate the burning of a candle study it and
answers the questions that follow
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i. What would happen to the burning candle if the pump was turned off? Give reasons
ii. State and explain the changes in mass that are likely to occur in tube N by the end of the
experiment (3 marks)
iii. Name two gases that come out through tube M (2 marks)
iv. Name another substance that could be used in the place of calcium oxide in tube N
21. Give the role of carbon (IV) oxide in carbonated drinks (2 marks)
22. When steam was passed over heated charcoal as shown in the diagram below, hydrogen and carbon
(II) oxide gases were formed
charcoal
steam
Gas C and D
Burning
a) Identify Gas C and D
b) Write the equation for the reaction which takes place (1 mark)
c) Name two uses of carbon (II) oxide gas, which are also uses of hydrogen gas (2 marks)
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23. When a candle was brunt completely. The total mass product was found to be greater than the original
mass of the candle. Explain
24. Carbon (II) oxide gas passed over heated Iron (III) oxide as shown in the diagram below.
a) Give the observation made in tube P (1 mark)
b) Write the equation for the reaction which takes place in tube P. (1 mark)
25. Dry carbon (II) oxide gas reacts with heated lead (II) oxide as shown in the equation below
PbO(s) + CO(g) →Pb (s) + CO2 (g)
a) Name the process undergone by the lead (II) oxide (1 mark)
b) Give a reason for your answer in (a) above (1 mark)
c) Name another gas that can be used to perform the same function as carbon (II) oxide gas in the
above reaction.
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26. The diagram below represents part of a set – up used to prepare and collect gas T.
a) Name two reagents that are reacted to produce both carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II) oxide.
(1 mark)
b) Write the equation for the reaction which takes place in the wash bottles. (1 mark)
c) Give a reason why carbon (II) oxide is not easily detected. (1 mark)
27. The diagram below shows a “Jiko” when in use. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
a) Identify the gas formed at region A. (1 mark)
b) State and explain the observation made at region B. (2 marks)
28. The set-up below was used to collect a dry sample of a gas.
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Give two reasons why the set-up cannot be used to collect carbon (IV) oxide gas. (2 marks)
29. a). Describe how carbon (IV) oxide can be distinguished from carbon (II) oxide using calcium hydroxide
(2 marks)
b). State the role of carbon (IV) oxide in fire extinguishers(1 mark)
30. Carbon exists in different crystalline forms. Some of these forms were recently discovered in soot and are
called fullerenes
a) What name is given to different crystalline forms of the same element? (1 mark)
b) Fullerenes dissolve in methylbenzene while the other forms of carbon do not. Given that soot is a
mixture of fullerenes and other solid forms of carbon, describe how crystals of fullerenes can be
obtained from soot. (3 marks)
31. When carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled in lime water, a white precipitate is observed, when excess carbon (IV) is use
the white precipitate dissolves to form a colourless solution, when the colourless solution is boiled the white
precipitate reappears. Explain these observations (3 marks)
32. When solid B1 was heated, a gas which formed a white precipitate when passed through lime water was produced.
The residue was dissolved in dilute nitric (V) acid to form a colourless solution B 2. When dilute hydrochloric acid
was added to solution B2 a white precipitate which dissolved on warming was formed. Write the formula of the;
a) Cation in solid B1 (1 mark)
b) Anion in solid B1 (1 mark)
33. When extinguishing fire caused by petrol, carbon (IV) oxide is used in preference to water explain (3 marks)
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34. The Schematic diagram shows part of the Solvay process used for the manufacture of sodium carbonate
Carbon (IV) oxide
NH4Cl
Saturated NaCl Process 1
ammonia Process II
NaHCO3 Sodium Carbonate
UNIT I
UNIT II
a) Explain how the sodium chloride required for this process is obtained from sea water (2 marks)
b) Two main reactions take place in UNIT 1.The first one is the formation of ammonium hydrogen carbonate
i. Write an equation for the reaction (1 mark)
ii. Write an equation for the second reaction (1mark)
c) State how the following are carried out (2 marks)
i. Process 1
ii. Process II
35. Carbon (II) oxide is described as a “silent killer”
a) State one physical property of carbon (II) oxide that makes it a “silent killer” (1 mark)
b) State and explain one chemical property that makes carbon (II) oxide poisonous to human beings (2
marks)
36. A water trough, aqueous sodium hydroxide, burning candle, watch class and a graduated gas jar were used in an
experimental set up to determine the percentage of active part of air. Draw a labeled diagram of the set up at the
end of the experiment. (3 marks)
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37. Exhaust fumes of some cars contain carbon II oxide and other gases
a) Explain how carbon (II) oxide is formed in the internal combustion engines
i. (1 mark)
b) Name two gases other than carbon (II) oxide that are contained in exhaust fumes and are pollutants.
(2 marks)
38. Graphite is one of the allotropes of carbon.
a) Name one other element which exhibits allotropy (1 mark)
b) Explain why graphite is used in the making of pencil leads. (2 marks)
39. Give two properties of carbon (IV) oxide which makes it suitable for use in fire extinguishers (2marks
40. a). Differentiate between allotropy and isotopy
b). Graphite is allotropy of carbon which conducts electricity though carbon is a non-metal. Explain
c). In terms of structure and bonding. Explain why diamond is used to make rock drills.
d). Carbon reacts with a hot concentrated Sulphuric (VI) acid
i. Give an equation for the reaction that occurs
ii. What property of carbon is displayed by this reaction
e). Sodium carbonate can be produced from trona as double salt
i. Write the formula of trona
ii. Why is trona a double salt
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iii. How is trona converted to Na2CO3
41. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow
T
H
D
a) Explain the observation made in the combustion tube during the experiment.
b) Write an equation for the reaction that takes place in the combustion tube
c) What is responsible for the flame at the end of the tube marked T
d) Explain the effect of increased carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere
42. a). in Kenya, sodium carbonate is extracted from trona at lake magadi.
i) Give the formula of trona.
ii) Name the process of extracting sodium carbonate from trona.
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b) The flow chart in figure 5 summarizes the steps involved in the production of
sodium carbonate. Use it to answer the questions that follow.
i) Name the process illustrated in figure 5.
ii) Identify the starting raw materials required in the production of sodium carbonate.
iii) Write equations for the two reactions that occur in the carbonator.
iv) Name two substances that are recycled.
v) Identify:
Solid X……………………………………………………
Process W……………………………………………………..
vi) Write an equation for the reaction that produces solution Z.
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vii) Apart from softening hard water, state two other uses of sodium carbonate.
43. The diagram below was used to prepare dry carbon (IV) oxide and investigate some of its properties
I. Write chemical equations for the reactions that occur in flask A and in the combustion tube (2 marks )
II. Identify the following 2 marks
Reagent B
Substance C
And gas D
III. With the help of equation ,explain the use of potassium hydroxide in the set up 1mark
IV. Why is it not possible to collect pure and dry carbon (II) oxide using both downward delivery or upward delivery
(1mark)
V. Give a the most suitable method that can be used to collect dry carbon (II) oxide (1 mark)
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VI. Both Sulphur (IV) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide a denser than air, but only carbon (IV) oxide is used in fire
extinguishers, Explain (2 marks)
VII. Carbon two oxide is referred as a silent killer, give two physical properties of carbon (II) oxie that make carbon (II)
oxide a silent killer ( 2marks)
44. study The diagram below an answer the question that follow
a. Two gases are produced when coke reacts with oxygen name the two gases ( 2marks)
b. One of the gases is a reducing agent but very poisonous and can cause death, explain how it
causes death( 2marks)
c. Write equations for the reaction that occur in the combustion tube( 2marks)
d. Write equations for the reaction that occur in the U-tube containing potassium hydroxide(
2marks)
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e. State the observations that occur in the furnace and U-tube 2 ( 2marks)
f. Suggest possible identities of gas W and X( 2marks)
THIS IS THE LAST PRINTED PAGE
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