TITLE:

The making of “Modern Ethiopian Empire” was

a roughly 50 years’ project. Recount on the inception and completion of modern Ethiopian
empire which involved reunification process, repulsing foreign aggressions and
modernization endeavors.

GROUP NAME : ID NO.

1. MOHAMMED ABDELLA AHMED .....................................................DDU1202802
2. MESKER MELAKU ABEBE................................................................DDU1203156
3. MESUD GEMECHU AMIN.................................................................DDU1203116
4. MIHERET WENDEMU ASEFA...........................................................DDU1202760
5. MEKUANENT NIGATU MELESE ......................................................DDU1203113
6. MULAT GETA TEGEGNE..................................................................DDU1203182
7. SEFA ABE EDAO...............................................................................DDU1202895

DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF LAW
Submition date:
Submitted to:
1.1. MODERN ETHIOPIAN EMPIRE.
The making of the modern Ethiopian state went through two distinct phases. The first one
involved unifying different regions and peoples in north and north central parts of Ethiopia. The
second phase involved territorial expansion into the southern parts of the country. Here under, the
processes of unification and territorial expansion are discussed in some detail.

1.2. Emperor Tewodros II

The shift in the balance of power in favour of regional lords created a fertile ground for political
fragmentation, civil wars and subsequent social, economic and political disorder. This period of
national crisis came to an end with the rise of Kasa Haylu who was crowned Tewodros II in
1855.The early career of Kasa Haylu was full of ups and downs, some of which left remarkable
influence on his future imperial policies and reforms. He was born to a family with no claim at
all of descent from the royal house. As a child he grew up in the care of his half- brother
Dejazmach Kinfu. Early in his life, he got church education and military training. As a young
man he was denied governorship over his family fief the district of Quara. 1 Following the death
of Kinfu, Kasa became a bandit on two occasions in the same region where he later fought
against Egyptian troops. In 1848, at the battle of Debarqi, Kasa Hailu suffered the only serious
defeat in his early career. This defeat in the hands of Egyptians shaped the attitude of the future
Tewodros with regard to foreign policy, discipline and modern firearms

1.1.3. Reunification of tewodros

The emperor went on subduing one region after another through protracted and punitive military
expeditions. In all cases, he secured military victories. For some regions he recognized loyal
members of regional dynasties to administer their respective regions. In other regions, such as
Gojjam, he appointed his own men from high-ranking civil and military officials. Tewodros took
a number of military, administrative and socioeconomic reform measures. As regards the army,
Tewodros introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa. Besides, he

1
History of Ethiopia and Horn
tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national
army.

administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on the centralization of power and securing
financial base. He introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning everyone should return
to his lawful avocation, the merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough. He tried to
separate church and the monarchy. He reduced the church land and the number of priests and
deacons that brought him into conflict with the EOCwhichprecipitated his downfall. In the case
of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction of Ethiopia’s first embryonic road network
to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. He also attempted to put an end to the
slave trade. Other reform attempts include land reform and banning of polygamy.

1.1.2. Foreign Aggression with tewodros

After the inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in several regions such as in Gojjam, Simen,
Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray. Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic
crises following the imprisonment of a handful of Britons and other Europeans. As a result, the
British Parliament sent an expeditionary force to free those prisoners and punish the emperor..
The captivity of Europeans however provoked anxiety, in Europe, mainly in Britain and France.
Tewodros was advised to release the European captives and was “promised” to get the skilled
personnel asked for. However, he refused to do as asked. The British sent their military
expedition led by Sir Robert Napier to Maqdala in the fall of 1867. The first and last major
encounter between the two forces took place on the plains of Eroge in April 1868. The battle of
Erogee was fought between un equals. About 2000 well-armed British troops and between 4000-
7000 ill-armed Ethiopians-ended in the shattering defeat of Ethiopians. The event hastened the
downfall of Tewodros which had already been weakened by internal factors, mainly the
opposition of the regional lords and the clergy. Refusing to accept a British demand for
unconditional surrender, Tewodros committed suicide on 13 April 1868. The British were
satisfied with the success of their mission, with all European captives of Tewodros released,
began to withdraw the country with out delay2

Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats during this period . The following
section discusses patriotism, determination and cooperation as well as the successes and limits of
2
History of Ethiopiaand Horn
Ethiopian peoples in the course of defending their country. The Battle of Dabarki (1848):
Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848. Although the
forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military imbalance particularly, the modern artillery
and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson to modernize his military force, acquire
modern technologies. This later initiated him to widen his vision and mission when he became
emperor3. The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through the
two British citizens, Walter Plowden and John Bell. His main aim was to obtain help against
foreign threats. In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance through
ConsulCameron.Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any response.
Suspecting him as plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron and other
Europeans. On learning the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a letter through
Hormuzd Rassam which did not satisfy Tewodros.

1.1.3. Modernization Attempt under Tewodros regime

Tewodros was very eager to build a strong modern national army. Above all, he wanted to import
the technical know-how for manufacturing firearms locally. When his tireless struggle to get
skilled personnel from Europe turned fruitless, he gathered European missionaries living in his
country and persuaded them to manufacture firearms at his gun foundry of Gafat, near Debre
Tabor. Obeying the king's orders the missionaries repaired broken firearms and manufactured
several cannons, including the mortar named Sebastopol.The period from 1800 to 1941 also
witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and technology by Ethiopian monarchs. Although
several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in European technologies, Emperor Tewodros
had preferable degree of information/contact about western technologies than his predecessors.
He was well aware of the importance of European technologies to transform his people and
country. For this purpose, he attempted to approach Europeans for the introduction of western
science and technologies It is apparent that, Kasa’s defeat by the well-trained and equipped
Egyptian troops at the Battle of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think putting the country “on an
equal footing with European powers.” As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military,
administrative and socio-economic reform measures. As regards the army, Tewodros introduced
military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa. Besides, he tried to organize and
replace the regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army. Furthermore, he
3
Bahru Zewde.A History of Modern Ethiopia
tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of
European missionaries and artisans. At Gafat, about 35 cannons were produced of which the
biggest one was known as “Sebastopol." He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana.

2 . Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

The first three years that followed the death of Tewodros were not eventful. Emperor
TaklaGiorgis (1868-71) had control of the central Amhara regions, but he did not exercise power
over the rival regions of Tigray and Shoa. His attempt to extend his control over Tigray ended in
his own defeat at the battle of Assam in July 1871 4. He was defeated and captured by Kasa
Mercha.

2.1. Reunification of yohannes

Like Tewodros, Yohannes IV began the process of reunification by directing military expeditions
against the regions of Gondar, Gojjam, Yeju, and Hamasen so as to get their submission. Unlike
Tewodros, however, Yohannes was flexible and did not often fight repeated wars with the same
regions. For instance, he made peace with Adal and recognized his authority over Gojjam. By so
doing, the emperor turned an enemy into a friend. Adal was rewarded by being crowned as King
of Gojjam and Kefa, with the name Takla Haymanot in January 1881. Yohannes attempted to
introduce a decentralized system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a great
deal of autonomy.

2.1.1. Foreign Aggression with yohannes

Foreign threat against Ethiopian independence, though manifested even earlier, reached a peak in
the second half of the nineteenth century. It came from several directions; Egypt, Mahdist Sudan
and Italy. The age-old ambition to control the Nile drainage system was the main interest of
Egyptian rulers. Thus in 1821 Egypt occupied Sudan. Despite fierce resistance, the military
superiority of the Egyptian army and internal conflicts among local people left Sudan an easy
prey to the Egyptian conquerors. As the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia was also victim of
Egyptian expansion. Indeed, Sudan served as a base for Egyptian encroachment into the north-
western Ethiopian regions like Semen, Dambya, and the Sheikdoms of Assosa and Beni –
4
Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn,
Shangul. For over half a century Egypt posed a serious problem on the social, economic and
religious life of the peoples along the Ethio-Sudanese border. Egyptians imposed heavy taxes on
regions they occupied. They looted and enslaved the local people, and burnt fields and homes to
ashes, when they faced resistance to their expansion. Ethio-Egyptian conflicts were intensified
during the reign of Emperor Tewodros. In 1865 the Egyptians took over the possession of the
port of Massawa from the Ottoman Turks on the basis of a lease contract. The Egyptians then
began to collect heavy taxes from Ethiopian merchants and blocked the import of firearms. Even
worse, from 1872 onwards Egyptian troops began to advance into and control other Red Sea
ports and coastal regions, as well as the border provinces of Matamma and Bogos.The then ruler
of Egypt, Khedive Ismail (1863-79), intensified the traditional Egyptian expansion to a more
aggressive attempt at occupation of all Ethiopia. The grand ambition of Egyptian rulers was to
build a Greater Egypt in North-East Africa. They aimed at becoming masters of the Nile basin
and the Nile sources. The pretext of eradication of the slave trade and “extension of western
civilization” into Africa were used by the rulers of Egypt to justify expansionist ambitions.
Khedive Ismail was able to get support from European powers using these arguments. Indeed,
the strategic significance of Egypt, due to the newly opened Suez Canal in 1869, was more
attractive to Europeans than Christian Ethiopia. However, Egyptian rulers seem to have
underestimated the military strength of Ethiopia. Egyptians were misled into believing that
Ethiopia was weak. Their calculations were based on the observation of the ease with which the
1868 British military expedition to Maqdala had been completed and the subsequent internal
political conflicts, following the death of Tewodros. 5 But by the middle of the 1870s, Ethiopia
was not anymore politically divided and weak as before. The Egyptian image of a weak and
disunited Ethiopia, and the absence of European opposition towards Egyptian expansion in the
Horn of Africa encouraged a large scale invasion of Ethiopia in 1875. The ports of the Gulf of
Aden and Massawa served as launching pads for the three-front invasion of Ethiopia by Egyptian
troops in 1875. He lost his life fighting the latter at Metemma in 1889. 6 Although the Emperor
had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, rivalry for power split the monarch's camp
and thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial throne. As a result, the
throne was assumed by Negus Menelik of Shewa who became Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913).

5
Bahru Zewde.A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991.
6
Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn,
2.1.2. Modernization attempt of yohannes

Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important reforms and innovations. Among
these, he was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who served as his
representative in London. He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian
construction worker to assist his modernization efforts of the country. 7 Furthermore, he sent
some individuals abroad for modern education. He was also the first to introduce modern style
vaccine against smallpox replacing traditional inoculation. His reign also witnessed extensive
treatment of syphilis in several towns.

2.1.3. Menelik II (1889-1913).

The process of Ethiopian empire formation was however, completed under Emperor Menelik II.
Menelik had learned a lot from the experiences of his predecessors

Menelik’s expansion was directed against independent peoples and states in the area of present
southwestern, southern and southeastern Ethiopia. 8 His expansion was different from that of his
predecessors in its intensity and unprecedented degree of success. Moreover, his territorial
expansion coincided with the colonial expansion of European powers in the Horn of Africa. His
conquests of border regions of present-day Ethiopia were marked by fierce competition with
European colonial powers. Finally, as a contender for the throne for two decades, Menelik
needed to build up his military muscle through conquest of the prosperous regions of southern
Ethiopia, which possessed valuable items of trade. Menilek's territorial expansionto western and
southwestern regions were concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions. In the
regions south of the Abbay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam had
already established his control over the region since the mid1870s. iAlthough he faced stiff
resistance from Moti (King) Abishe Garba of Horro, Adal’s force ambushed Abishe and his
entourage at a place called Kokor. Thus, Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle Haymanot since 1881) controlled
the region until 1882, when he was defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana

2.1.4. Foreign Aggression with menilek

. Italian Aggression against Ethiopia

7
Taddese Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Shiferaw Bekele (Eds). Kasa and Kasa: Papers on the Lives Times and Images of Tewodros II and Yohannes IV (1855-1889).
8
H. R. Shaw , Menelik and the Ethiopian Empire, 1813-1889.
During the second –half of the 19th century, a third and major source of aggression against
Ethiopia was Italy. Italy had colonial designs over Ethiopia. Therefore, her colonial ambitions led
her to occupy territories in the north, establish the colony of Eritrea and fight the Battle of Adwa
against Ethiopia in 1896. Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the
Wuchale Treaty.9It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale,
Wollo between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi
of Italy. The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languagesThe
Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to Hist.102 134
legitimize itsfurther expansion towards the Mereb River. ii However, Article XVII has major
difference in the two language versions. While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could
optionally conduct its foreign affairs through Italy, the Italian version A Short History of Ethiopia
and the Horn,indicates that Menilek’s foreign contacts must be through the agency of Italy. As a
result, based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy announced that all foreign powers had
to deal with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia. In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its colony. 10

Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through tricky treaties; persuasion and the subversive methods
failed. This was because Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February 1893 and
Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach Hagos Tafari,
began to fight against the Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek. Italian determination to
occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance against colonialism led to the battle. This finally led to
the Battle of Adwa, where the latter became victorious. The Italian Government took control of
Assab from the Rusbatino Shipping Company in 1882. Then, in 1885 Italy occupied Massawa,
and began attempts to penetrate into the interior from the coast. The Italian attempts to encroach
into the highlands of the Mereb Mellash (Eritrea) region was unacceptable both to Emperor
Yohannes IV and his commander, Ras Alula Engida. Alula was also Governor of the province of
Mereb Mellash. Therefore, the Italians came into direct conflict with Yohannes and Alula. 11 On
26 January 1887 Alula, at a place called Dogali, crushed an Italian contingent consisting of about
500 Italian soldiers, which were going as reinforcements to the Saati fortress that he had
attempted to attack. This was actually the first serious blow to Italian colonial advance in
9
, H. R. Shawa, Menelik and the Ethiopian Empire, 1813-1889
10
Bahru Zewde.A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991.
11
A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn,
Ethiopia. Thus, it created great anxiety and provoked Italian desire for revenge. It equally
offended the British government. However, while Italy wanted military revenge, Britain
intervened as a peace broker, of course, on behalf of the aggressor. A British envoy, Gerald
Portal, met Yohannes in November 1887 and proposed a war indemnity for Italy, official
Ethiopian apology for Alula’s attack, and cession of occupied coastal regions to Italy. Portal’s
mission failed. Yohannes declared his choice of war rather than accept these proposed terms of
peace. He also wrote to Queen Victoria condemning British diplomatic dishonesty and
unfairness.

2.1.5.Modernization Attempt of menilek

Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse elements. iii The post Adwa
period was marked by the establishment of a postal service and telecommunications/ the
telephone-telegraph system, the beginning of construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis
Ababa, the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and the introduction of paper money. In
terms of administration, the emperor introduced a European style ministerial system/ministers in
1907. The political stability that followed the establishment of an expanded empire facilitated the
revival of local and foreign trade. Addis Ababa was founded by Empress Taytu in November
1886, and became the centre of government and economic activities 12. Elsewhere in the south,
south-west and south-east, a significant number of garrison centers of the expanding army of
Menelik evolved into administrative and commercial centers

12
Modern Ethiopian History
CONCLUSION

The early career of Kasa Haylu was full of ups and downs, some of which left remarkable
influence on his future imperial policies and reforms. He was born to a family with no claim at
all of descent from the royal house. As a child he grew up in the care of his half- brother
Dejazmach Kinfu. Early in his life, he got church education and military training. As a young
man he was denied governorship over his family fief the district of Quara. Following the death of
Kinfu, Kasa became a bandit on two occasions in the same region where he later fought against
Egyptian troops. In 1848, at the battle of Debarqi, Kasa Hailu suffered the only serious defeat in
his early

The first three years that followed the death of Tewodros were not eventful. Emperor
TaklaGiorgis (1868-71) had control of the central Amhara regions, but he did not exercise power
over the rival regions of Tigray and Shoa. His attempt to extend his control over Tigray ended in
his own defeat at the battle of Assam in July 1871. He was defeated and captured by Kasa
Mercha. In consequence, the latter also took over the throne with all the challenges of regional
forces and the threat from outside.Like Tewodros, Yohannes IV began the process of
reunification by directing military expeditions against the regions of Gondar, Gojjam, Yeju, and
Hamasen so as to get their submission. However, the submission of some regions was only
temporary, and they rebelled against the emperor. In Gojjam, for instance, the local power
contender, Adal Tasamma, assumed power by killing his rival Dasta Tadla who had already
obtained royal recognition. Unlike Tewodros, however, Yohannes was flexible and did not often
fight repeated wars with the same regions. For instance, he made peace with Adal and recognized
his authority over Gojjam. By so doing, the emperor turned an enemy into a friend. Adal was
rewarded by being crowned as King of Gojjam and Kefa, with the name Takla 13Haymanot in
January 1881. Menelik had learned a lot from the experiences of his predecessors Menelik’s

13
expansion was directed against independent peoples and states in the area of present
southwestern, southern and southeastern Ethiopia.
i

ii

iii

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