Human Growth and Development Theories

The term growth and development both refers to dynamic process. Often used
interchangeably, these terms have different meanings. Growth and development are
interdependent, interrelated process. Growth generally takes place during the first 20
years of life.; development continues after that.

Growth:

1. Is physical change and increase in size.

2. It can be measured quantitatively.
3. Indicators of growth includes height, weight, bone size, and dentition.
4. Growth rates vary during different stages of growth and development.
5. The growth rate is rapid during the prenatal, neonatal, infancy and
adolescent stages and slows during childhood.
6. Physical growth is minimal during adulthood.

Development:

1. Is an increase in the complexity of function and skill progression.

2. It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment.
3. Development is the behavioral aspect of growth.

THEORIES:

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
1. Oral Birth to 1½ Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratification & exploration)
y/o Primary need: Security
Major conflict: weaning
2. Anal 1½ to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual satisfaction & self-control)
Major conflict: toilet training
3. Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: child’s genital (masturbation)
Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex
4. Latency 6 y/o to Energy directed to physical & intellectual activities
puberty Sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers of same sex
5. Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity & function & development
onwards of skills to cope with the environment

2. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory

STAGE AGE CENTRAL (+) RESOLUTION (-) RESOLUTION
TASK
1. Infancy Birth-18 Trust vs Learn to trust others Mistrust, withdrawal,
mos Mistrust estrangement

2. Early 1½ to 3 Autonomy vs Self control w/o loss of Compulsive, self-restraint or

childhood y/o Shame & self esteem compliance.
doubt Willfulness & defiance.
 Ability of cooperate &
express oneself

3. Late 3 to 5 y/o Initiative vs Learns to become Lack of self-confidence.

childhood guilt assertive Pessimism, fear of
Ability to evaluate one’s wrongdoing.
own behavior
Over-control & over-
restriction.

4. School Age 6 to 12 y/o Industry vs Learns to create, develop Loss of hope, sense of being
Inferiority & manipulate. mediocre.
Develop sense of Withdrawal from school &
competence & peers.
perseverance.

5. Adolescence 12–20 y/o Identity vs Coherent sense of self. Feelings of confusion,

role confusion Plans to actualize one’s indecisiveness, & possible
abilities anti-social behavior.

6. Young 18-25 y/o Intimacy vs Intimate relationship Impersonal relationships.

Adulthood isolation with another person. Avoidance of relationship,
Commitment to work career or lifestyle
and relationships. commitments.

7. Adulthood 25-65 y/o Generativity Creativity, productivity, Self-indulgence, self-

vs stagnation concern for others. concern, lack of interests &
commitments.
8. Maturity 65 y/o to Integrity vs Acceptance of worth & Sense of loss, contempt for
death despair uniqueness of one’s own others.
life.
Acceptance of death.
3. Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks
DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
STAGE
1. Infancy & early childhood - eat solid foods
- walk
- talk
- control elimination of wastes
- relate emotionally to others
- distinguish right from wrong through development of a conscience
- learn sex differences and sexual modesty
- achieve personal independence
- form simple concepts of social & physical reality
2. Middle childhood - learn physical skills, required for games
- build healthy attitudes towards oneself
- learn to socialize with peers
- learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
- gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills
- develop concepts necessary for everyday living
- formulate a conscience based on a value system
- achieve personal independence
- develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions

3. Adolescence - establish more mature relationships with same-age individuals of both

sexes
- achieve a masculine or feminine social role
- accept own body
- establish emotional independence from parents
- achieve assurance of economic independence
- prepare for an occupation
- prepare for marriage & establishment of a family
- acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities
- develop a set of values that guides behavior

4. Early Adulthood - select a partner

- learn to live with a partner
- start a family
- manage a home
- establish self in a career/occupation
- assume civic responsibilities
- become part of a social group

5. Middle Adulthood - fulfill civic & social responsibilities

- maintain an economic standard of living
- assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults
- relate one’s partner
- adjust to physiological changes
- adjust to aging parents

6. Later Maturity - adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health status

- adjust to retirement & altered income
- adjust to death of spouse
- develop affiliation with one’s age group
 - meet civic & social responsibilities
- establish satisfactory living arrangements

4. Levinson’s Seasons of Adulthood

AGE SEASON CHARACTERISTICS

18-20 yrs Early adult transition Seeks independence by separating from family

21-27 yrs Entrance into the adult world Experiments with different careers & lifestyles

28-32 yrs Transition Makes lifestyle adjustments

33-39 yrs Settling down Experiences greater stability

45-65 yrs Pay-off years Is self-directed & engages in self-evaluation

5. Sullivan’s Interpersonal Model of Personality Development

STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION

1. Infancy Birth to 1½ yrs Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs & desires

2. Childhood 1½ to 6 yrs Child begins learning to delay immediate gratification of

needs & desires

3. Juvenile 6 to 9 yrs Child forms fulfilling peer relationships

4. Preadolescence 9 to 12 yrs Child relates successfully to same-sex peers

5. Early Adolescence 12 to 14 yrs Adolescent learns to be independent & forms relationships

with members of opposite sex

6. Late Adolescence 14 to 21 yrs Person establishes an intimate, long-lasting relationship

with someone of the opposite sex

6. Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive Development

PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION
a. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs Sensory organs & muscles become more functional
Stage 1: Use of reflexes Birth to 1 Movements are primarily reflexive
month
Stage 2: Primary circular 1-4 months Perceptions center around one’s body.
reaction Objects are perceived as extensions of the self.

Stage 3: Secondary 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment.

circular reaction Initiates acts to change the movement.

Stage 4: Coordination of 8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.

secondary schemata

Stage 5: Tertiary circular 12-18 months Experiments with methods to reach goals.
reaction Develops rituals that become significant.

Stage 6: Invention of new 18-24 months Uses mental imagery to understand the environment.
means Uses fantasy.

b. Pre-operational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think

Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 year Thinking tends to be egocentric.
Exhibits use of symbolism.

Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into separate parts.
Able to classify objects according to one trait.

c. Concrete Operations 7-11 years Learns to reason about events in the here-and-now.

d. Formal Operations 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.

8. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION
LEVEL I: Pre-conventional Authority figures are obeyed.
(Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done.

Stage 1: Punishment & obedience A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is punished; the activity is
orientation “right” if one is not punished.

Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist “Right” is defined as that which is acceptable to & approved by

orientation the self.
When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are “right.”

LEVEL II: Conventional Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained.

(9-13 years) Approval of others is sought through one’s actions.

Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance Authority is respected.

Stage 4: Law and order orientation Individual feels “duty bound” to maintain social order.
Behavior is “right” when it conforms to the rules.
LEVEL III: Post-conventional Individual understands the morality of having democratically
established laws.
(13+ years)

Stage 5: Social contract orientation It is “wrong” to violate others’ rights.

Stage 6: Universal ethics The person understands the principles of human rights & personal
orientation conscience.
Person believes that trust is basis for relationships.

9. Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development

LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS
I. Orientation of Individual Concentrates on what is best for self.
Survival Transition Selfish.
Dependent on others.

Transition 1: From Selfishness to Recognizes connections to others.

Responsibility Makes responsible choices in terms of self and others.

II. Goodness as Self-sacrifice Puts needs of others ahead of own.

Feels responsible for others.
Is dependent.
May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to “help.”

Transition 2: From Goodness to Decisions based on intentions & consequences, not on others’
Truth responses.
Considers needs of self and others.
Wants to help others while being responsible to self.
Increased social participation.

III. Morality of Nonviolence Sees self and others as morally equal

Assumes responsibilities for own decisions.
Basic tenet to hurt no one including self.
Conflict between selfishness and selflessness.
Self-judgment is not dependent on others’ perceptions but rather
on consequences & intentions of actions.
10. Fowler’s Stages of Faith

STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

Pre-stage: Infant Trust, hope and love compete with environmental
Undifferentiated faith inconsistencies or threats if abandonment.

Stage 1: Toddler- Imitates parental behaviors and attitudes about religion

Intuitive-projective preschooler and spirituality.
faith Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts.

Stage 2: School-aged child Accepts existence of a deity.

Mythical-literal faith Religious & moral beliefs are symbolized by stories.
Appreciates others’ viewpoints.
Accepts concept of reciprocal fairness.

Stage 3: Adolescent Questions values & religious beliefs in an attempt to

Synthetic-conventional form own identity.
faith
Stage 4: Late adolescent & Assumes responsibility for own attitudes & beliefs.
Individuative-reflective young adult
faith

Stage 5: Adult Integrates other perspectives about faith into own

Conjunctive faith definition of truth.

Stage 6:
Universalizing faith