1

Intersections and Development of Surfaces Some of the most complex drawing constructions are intersections and developments. A development is a flat representation of a three-dimensional solid that when folded together portrays the solid object. An intersection is the result of two solids that intersect each other. Even using computers, the graphic solution of developments and intersections is a complex computational task. A machine part or structure often consists of a number of geometric shapes. Easily represented geometric forms frequently meet in lines of intersection that require knowledge and skill to produce multiview projection. Accurate representation of the intersecting surfaces is very important since precision fit is necessary for function and appearance. The development of these surfaces is a flat pattern that represents the unfolded or unrolled surface of the form. The

resulting plane figure gives the true size of each area of the form so connected that when fabricated, the desired part or structure is produced. A surface is a geometric magnitude having two dimensions. It may be generated by a line called generatrix. Any position of the generatrix is an element of the surface. A ruled surface is one that may be generated by a straight line and may be a plane, single-curved surface or warped surface. A plane is a ruled surface that may be generated by a straight line, one point of which moves along another straight line while the generatrix remains parallel to its original position. Many of the geometric solids are bounded by plane surfaces. A single-curved is a developable ruled surface, that is, it can be unrolled to coincide with a plane. Any two adjacent positions of the generatrix lie in the same plane. Examples are cylinders and cones. A warped surface is a ruled surface that is not developable. No two adjacent positions of the

generatrix lie in the same plane. Many exterior surfaces on an airplane or automobile are warped surfaces. A double-curve surface may be generated only by a curved line and has no straight-line elements. Such a surface, generated by revolving a curved line about a straight line in the plane of the curve is called a double-curved surface of revolution. Common examples are the sphere, torus, ellipsoid and hyperboloid. A developable surface is one that may be unfolded or unrolled to coincide with a plane. Solids bounded by plane surfaces are polyhedra, the most common of which are the pyramid and prism. Convex solids whose faces are all equal regular polygons are regular polyhedra. These include tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron. They are known as the five Platonic solids. Plane surfaces that bound polyhedra are faces of the solids. Lines of intersection of faces are edges of the solids. A solid generated by revolving a plane figure about an axis in the

plane of the figure is a solid of revolution. Solids bounded by warped surfaces have no group name. Such an example is a screw thread. The intersection of a plane and a solid is the locus of the points of intersection of the elements of the solid with the plane. For solids bounded by plane surfaces, it is necessary only to find the points of intersection of the edges of the solid with the plane and to join these points, in consecutive order, with straight lines. For solids bounded by curved surfaces, it is necessary to find the points of intersection of several elements of the solid with the plane and to trace a smooth curve through these points. The curve of intersection of a plane and a circular cone is a conic section. The development of a surface is that surface laid out on a plane. Single-curved surfaces and the surfaces of polyhedra can be developed. Warped surfaces and doublecurved surfaces can be developed only approximately.

It is common practice to draw development lay-outs with the inside surfaces up. In this way, all fold lines and other markings are related directly to inside measurements, which are the important dimensions in all ducts, pipes, tanks and other vessels. A wide variety of hems and joints are used in the fabrication of sheet-metal developments and other materials. Hems are used to eliminate the raw edge as well as to stiffen the material. Joints and seams may be made for sheet metal by bending, welding, riveting and soldering. The technique for creating the development of solids is determined by the basic geometric shape. Prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones, each have a particular development technique. The intersection of two solids is determined by plotting the intersection of each surface and transferring the intersection points to each development. Cones and pyramids use radial development.

Prisms and cylinders use parallel development. Truncated solids, cones and pyramids are created by developing the whole solid and then plotting the truncated endpoints on each radial element. Intersections of solids are generally regarded as a province of descriptive geometry. An intersection of two solids is referred to as a figure of intersection. Two plane surfaces intersect in a straight line. Hence, if two solids that are composed of plane surfaces intersect, the figure of intersection will be composed of straight lines. The method generally consists of finding the piercing points of the edges of one solid in the surfaces of the other solid and joining these points with straight lines. If curved surfaces intersect or if curved surfaces and plane surfaces intersect, the figure of intersection will be composed of curves. The method generally consists of finding the piercing points of elements of one

solid in the surfaces of the other. A smooth curve is then traced through these points, with the aid of an irregular curve. Triangulation is simply a method of dividing a surface into a number of triangles and transferring them to the development. A triangle is said to be indestructible because if its sides are of given lengths, it can be only one shape. A triangle can be easily transferred by transferring the sides with the aid of a compass. A transition piece is one that connects two differently shaped, differently sized or skewed-position openings. In most cases, transition pieces are composed of plane surfaces and conical surfaces, the latter being developed by triangulation. Triangulation can also be used to develop, approximately, certain warped surfaces. Transition pieces are used extensively in air conditioning, heating, ventilating and similar construction. Transition pieces are developed by creating triangular

surfaces that approximate the transition from rectangular to circular. The smaller the triangular surfaces, the more accurate the development is. Determining the intersections and developments of planes and solids that contain plane, curved or warped surfaces can be very time consuming if done by traditional methods. 3D CAD software quickly creates 3D models joined together to create complex shapes. Once the solids or surfaces are defined, many programs have the additional capacity to generate the flat pattern or development directly from the model. Also, the code control 3D NC machines can be generated from the CAD database. Reference: Giesecke, F. (2001). Technical Drawing. Singapore: Pearson Education Asia.