Block Diagram Algebra and Transfer

Functions of Systems
Er. Vinay Kumar
Department of Electronics Engineering
Kamla Nehru Institute of Technology, Sultanpur (U.P.)
[email protected]

© 2022 Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS :
➢ As you already know, a
subsystem is represented as
a block with an input, an
output, and a transfer
function.
➢ Many systems are composed
of multiple subsystems, as in
Figure.
➢ When multiple subsystems
are interconnected, a few
more schematic elements
must be added to the block
diagram.
➢ These new elements are
summing junctions and
pickoff points.

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS :
In general, a block diagram consists of a specific configuration of four types of
elements: blocks, summing points, takeoff points, and arrows representing
unidirectional signal flow:
Time-domain quantities are represented
by lowercase letters.
Example:
𝒓 = 𝒓(𝒕) for continuous signals, and
𝑟(𝑡𝑘 ) or 𝒓 𝒌 , 𝒌 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … for
discrete-time signals.
Capital letters are used for Laplace transforms, or z-transforms. The argument s or z is often
suppressed, to simplify the notation, if the context is clear, or if the results presented are the
same for both Laplace (continuous-time system) and z-(discrete-time system)transfer function
domains.
𝑅 = 𝑅(𝑠) or 𝑅 = 𝑅(𝑧)

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS :

The quantities 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 and H are the transfer functions of the components in the blocks.
They may be either Laplace or z-transform transfer functions.
𝐺1 = 𝑈/𝐸 or 𝑈 = 𝐺1 /𝐸
It is important to note that these results apply either to Laplace transform or to z-
transform transfer functions, but not necessarily to mixed continuous/discrete block
diagrams that include samplers. Samplers are linear devices, but they are not time-
invariant.

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCKS IN CASCADE:
Figure (a) shows an example of cascaded subsystems. Intermediate signal values are
shown at the output of each subsystem. Each signal is derived from the product of the input
times the transfer function. The equivalent transfer function, Ge(s), shown in Figure (b)

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCKS IN CASCADE:
Equation 𝐺𝑒 𝑠 = 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠 was derived under the assumption that interconnected
subsystems do not load adjacent subsystems. That is, a subsystem's output remains the
same whether or not the subsequent subsystem is connected. If there is a change in the
output, the subsequent subsystem loads the previous subsystem, and the equivalent transfer
function is not the product of the individual transfer functions.

The network of Figure (a) demonstrates this concept.

Its transfer function is

…(1)

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCKS IN CASCADE:
Similarly, the network of Figure (b) has the following
transfer function:

…(2)

If the networks are placed in cascade, as in Figure (c),

you can verify that the transfer function found using
loop or node equations is

…(3)

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCKS IN CASCADE:
But, using 𝐺𝑒 𝑠 = 𝐺3 𝑠 𝐺2 𝑠 𝐺1 𝑠
…(4)

Equations (3) and (4) are not the same: Eq. (3) has one more term for the coefficient of
s in the denominator and is correct.
One way to prevent loading is to use an amplifier
between the two networks, as shown in Figure 5.4(d).
The amplifier has a high-impedance input, so that it
does not load the previous network. At the same time
it has a low-impedance output, so that it looks like a
pure voltage source to the subsequent network. With
the amplifier included, the equivalent transfer
function is the product of the transfer functions and
the gain, K, of the amplifier.

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCKS IN CASCADE:

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Blocks in Parallel:
Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the algebraic
sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems.

The equivalent transfer function, 𝐺𝑒 𝑠

𝐺𝑒 𝑠 = ±𝐺1 𝑠 ± 𝐺2 𝑠 ± 𝐺3 𝑠
which is the algebraic sum of the subsystems'
transfer functions; it appears in Figure (b).

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Blocks in Feedback Form:

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System:
The two blocks in the forward path of the feedback system of Fig. may be combined.
Letting 𝑮 ≡ 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 , the resulting configuration is called the canonical form of a
feedback control system. G and H are not necessarily unique for a particular system.
The following definitions refer to Fig.

G ≡ direct transfer function = forward transfer function

H ≡ feedback transfer function
GH ≡ loop transfer function = open-loop transfer function
C/R ≡ closed-loop transfer function = control ratio
E/R ≡ actuating signal ratio = error ratio
B/R ≡ primary feedback ratio

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Canonical Form of A Feedback Control System:
In the following equations, the − sign refers to a positive feedback system, and
the + sign refers to a negative feedback system:
𝑪 𝑮
𝑹
= 𝟏±𝑮𝑯
𝑬 𝟏
𝑹
= 𝟏±𝑮𝑯
𝑩 𝑮𝑯
=
𝑹 𝟏±𝑮𝑯

The denominator of 𝐶/𝑅 determines the characteristic equation of the system,

which is usually determined from 1 ± 𝐺𝐻 = 0 or, equivalently,
𝐷𝐺𝐻 ± 𝑁𝐺𝐻 = 0
Where 𝐷𝐺𝐻 is the denominator and 𝑁𝐺𝐻 is the numerator of GH. unless a pole
of G cancels a zero of H
© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS :
The letter P is used to represent any transfer function, and W, X, Y, Z denote any transformed signals.

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS :

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS :

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS :

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS :

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS :

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
A unity feedback system is one in which the primary feedback b is identically
equal to the controlled output c.

EXAMPLE:
H = 1 for a linear, unity feedback system

Any feedback system with only linear time-invariant elements can be put into
the form of a unity feedback system by using Transformation 5.
EXAMPLE:

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
The characteristic equation for the unity feedback system, determined from
1 ± 𝐺 = 0 is
𝐷𝐺 + 𝑁𝐺 = 0
Where 𝐷𝐺 is the denominator and 𝑁𝐺 the numerator of G.

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Block Diagram Reduction via Familiar Forms
EXAMPLE : Reduce the system shown in Figure to a single transfer function

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Block Diagram Reduction via Familiar Forms

➢ First, the three summing junctions can be collapsed into a single summing junction,
as shown in Figure (a).
➢ Second, recognize that the three feedback functions, H1(s), H2(s), and H3(s), are
connected in parallel. They are fed from a common signal source, and their outputs
are summed. The equivalent function is H1 (s) − H2 (s) + H3 (s). Also recognize that
G2(s) and G3(s) are connected in cascade. Thus, the equivalent transfer function is
the product, G3(s)G2(s). The results of these steps are shown in Figure (b).
➢ Finally, the feedback system is reduced and multiplied by G1(s) to yield the
equivalent transfer function shown in Figure (c).

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Block Diagram Reduction via Familiar Forms

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Block Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
EXAMPLE : Reduce the system shown in Figure to a single transfer function

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Block Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks
Steps:
➢ First, move G2(s) to the left past the pickoff point to create parallel subsystems, and
reduce the feedback system consisting of G3(s) and H3(s). This result is shown in
Figure (a).
➢ Second, reduce the parallel pair consisting of 1/G2(s) and unity, and push G1(s) to
the right past the summing junction, creating parallel subsystems in the feedback.
These results are shown in Figure (b).
➢ Third, collapse the summing junctions, add the two feedback elements together, and
combine the last two cascaded blocks. Figure (c) shows these results.
➢ Fourth, use the feedback formula to obtain Figure (d).
➢ Finally, multiply the two cascaded blocks and obtain the final result, shown in
Figure (e).

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
Block Diagram Reduction by Moving Blocks

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS
The block diagram of a practical feedback control system is often quite complicated. It may
include several feedback or feedforward loops, and multiple inputs. The following general steps
may be used as a basic approach in the reduction of complicated block diagrams.
Step 1: Combine all cascade blocks using Transformation 1.
Step 2: Combine all parallel blocks using Transformation 2.
Step 3: Eliminate all minor feedback loops using Transformation 4.
Step 4: Shift summing points to the left and takeoff points to the right of the major
loop, using Transformations 7, 10, and 12.
Step 5: Repeat Steps-1 to 4 until the canonical form has been achieved for a particular
input.
Step 6: Repeat Steps 1 to 5 for each input, as required.
Transformations 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 11 are sometimes useful, and experience with the
reduction technique will determine their application.
© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS
EXAMPLE : Let us reduce the block diagram (Fig.) to canonical form

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS
➢ An occasional requirement of block diagram reduction is the isolation of a particular
block in a feedback or feedforward loop. This may be desirable to more easily
examine the effect of a particular block on the overall system.
➢ Isolation of a block generally may be accomplished by applying the same reduction
steps to the system, but usually in a different order. Also, the block to be isolated
cannot be combined with any others.
➢ Rearranging Summing Points (Transformation 6) and Transformations 8, 9, and 11
are especially useful for isolating blocks.

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
SUPERPOSITION OF MULTIPLE INPUTS
Sometimes it is necessary to evaluate system performance when several inputs are
simultaneously applied at different points of the system.
When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, each is treated independently of the
others. The output due to all stimuli acting together is found in the following manner. We
assume zero initial conditions, as we seek the system response only to inputs.
Step 1: Set all inputs except one equal to zero.
Step 2: Transform the block diagram to canonical form, using the transformations.
Step 3: Calculate the response due to the chosen input acting alone.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs.
Step 5: Algebraically add all o f the responses (outputs) determined in Steps 1 to 4.
This sum is the total output of the system with all inputs acting simultaneously.
We reemphasize here that the above superposition process is dependent on the system
being linear.
© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
SUPERPOSITION OF MULTIPLE INPUTS
EXAMPLE : We determine the output C due to inputs U and R for Fig.

Step 1: Put 𝑈 = 0 .
Step 2: The system reduces to

𝐺1 𝐺2
Step 3: The output 𝐶𝑅 due to input R is 𝐶𝑅 = 𝑅
1+𝐺1 𝐺2

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
SUPERPOSITION OF MULTIPLE INPUTS
Step 4a: Put R= 0 . Let the −1 block be absorbed into the summing point:
Step 4b: Put −1 into a block, representing
the negative feedback effect:

Step 4c: The output 𝐶𝑈 due to input U is

𝐺2
𝐶𝑈 = 𝑈
1+𝐺1 𝐺2

Rearrange the block diagram: Step 5: The total output is

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑅 + 𝐶𝑈
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺2
= 1+𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑅+ 1+𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑈
𝑮𝟐
= [𝑮𝟏 𝑹 + 𝑼]
𝟏+𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved
REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS
EXAMPLE : Determine the transfer function Y(s)/R(s).

© 2022 | Er. Vinay Kumar, Department of Electronics Engineering, KNIT, Sultanpur. All rights reserved