THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MA 310 – Engineering Mathematics II
2022/23 Academic Year

Fourier Analysis

Instructions
These are the edited lecture notes for Chapter 2, Fouriers Analysis, of this course,
MA310 - Engineering Mathematics II, intended for third year engineering students
for Day and Evening Progams at all campuses of The Copperbelt University. We
are currently at different stages of the topics.
Each lecture will deal with a major subject area(s). At the end of each lecture
students should be able to master the content of the lecture. To explain the
content, the student will find examples. To develop the understanding of the
student, exercises are given. The exercises give a list of questions that should all
be attempted after acquiring the skills for a particular Lecture. These questions
include questions similar to what can be expected in future examination papers.
When answering a question, the writing must be clear. That is, the marker or any
other person reading your answer must be able to follow your reasoning. In
mathematics we are not only interested in the correct answer, but also in the
method used to obtain the answer. Attention must be payed to the correct use of
symbols.
Please attempt all questions. If you have any queries or clarifications
regarding the material covered, please do so through the class
representatives.

2.1 Fourier series for periodic functions of period 2π

1. Introduction
Fourier series provides a method of analysing periodic functions into their
constituent components. Alternating currents and voltages, displacement, velocity

1
and acceleration of slider-crank mechanisms and acoustic waves are typical
practical examples in engineering and science where periodic functions are
involved and often require analysis.
2. Periodic Functions
A function fx is said to be periodic if fx  T  fx for all values of x, where T is
some positive number. T is the interval between two successive repetitions and is
called the period of the functions f(x). For example, y  sin x is periodic in x with
period 2π since sin x  sinx  2π  sinx  4π, and so on. In general, if y  sin ωt
then the period of the waveform is 2π/ω. The function shown in Figure below is also
periodic of period 2π and is defined by:
1, when    x  0
fx  .
1, when 0x

Figure 2.1
If a graph of a function has no sudden jumps or breaks it is called a continuous
function, examples being the graphs of sine and cosine functions. However, other
graphs make finite jumps at a point or points in the interval. The square wave
shown in Figure 2.1 has finite discontinuities at x  , 2, 3, and so on. A great
advantage of Fourier series over other series is that it can be applied to functions
which are discontinuous as well as those which are continuous.
3. Fourier Series
(i) The basis of a Fourier series is that all functions of practical significance which
are
defined in the interval π  x  π can be expressed in terms of a convergent
trigonometric series of the form:
fx  a 0  a 1 cos x  a 2 cos 2x  a 3 cos 3x    b 1 sin x  b 2 sin 2x  b 3 sin 3x  

when a 0 , a 1 , a_2, b_1, b_2,  are real constants, i.e.


fx  a 0  a n cos nx  b n sin nx (1)
n1

where for the range -π to π:

2
 
a 0  1  fxdx,
2 
an  1   fx cos nxdx (n  1, 2, 3, ),


and

1
bn     fx sin nxdx (n  1, 2, 3, ).

(ii) a 0 , a n and b n are called the Fourier coefficients of the series and if these can be
determined, the series of equation (1) is called the Fourier series corresponding
to fx.
(iii) An alternative way of writing the series is by using the relationship
a cos x  b sin x  c sin x  α

so that
fx  a 0  c 1 sinx  α 1   c 2 sin2x  α 2   · · ·  c n sinnx  α n ,

where a 0 is a constant,
c1  a 21  b 21 , , c n  a 2n  b 2n

are the amplitudes of the various components, and phase angle

α n  tan 1 a n .
bn

(iv) For the series of equation (1): the term a 1 cos x  b 1 sin x or c 1 sinx   1  is
called the first harmonic or the fundamental, the term a 2 cos x  b 2 sin x or
c 2 sinx   2  is called the second harmonic, and so on.
For an exact representation of a complex wave, an infinite number of terms are, in
general, required. In many practical cases, however, it is sufficient to take the first
few terms only.
The sum of a Fourier series at a point of discontinuity is given by the arithmetic
mean of the two limiting values of fx as x approaches the point of discontinuity
from the two sides. For example, for the wave form shown in Figure 2.2, the sum of
the Fourier series at the points of discontinuity i.e., at 2 , ,  is given by
8  3
 5.
2 2

3
Figure 2.2

4
 Example 1 Determine the Fourier series for the periodic function:
2 when   x  0
fx  .
2, when 0x

π π
Deduce a series for 4
at the point x  2
.
Solution

Example 2 For the waveform shown below determine (a) the Fourier series for the
function and (b) the sum of the Fourier series at the points of discontinuity.

Figure 2.4
Solution

Example 3 Find the term representing the third harmonic for the periodic function
of period 2π given by:
0, when    x  0
fx  .
1, when 0x

Solution

2.2 Fourier series for a non-periodic function over range 2π.

1. Introduction
As was stated in the previous section, there are many practical uses of Fourier
series in science and engineering. The technique has practical applications in the
resolution of sound waves into their different frequencies, for example, in an MP3
player, in telecommunications and Wi-Fi, in computer graphics and image
processing, in climate variation, in water waves, and much more. In this section, the
Fourier series for non-periodic functions is explained.

5
2. Expansion of non-periodic functions
If a function fx is not periodic then it cannot be expanded in a Fourier series for all
values of x. However, it is possible to determine a Fourier series to represent the
function over any range of width 2π. Given a non-periodic function, a new function
may be constructed by taking the values of f(x) in the given range and then
repeating them outside of the given range at intervals of 2π. Since this new function
is, by construction, periodic with period 2π, it may then be expanded in a Fourier
series for all values of x. For example, the function fx  x is not a periodic
function. However, if a Fourier series for f(x)x is required then the function is
constructed outside of this range so that it is periodic with period 2π as shown by
the broken lines in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6
For non-periodic functions, such as fx  x, the sum of the Fourier series is equal
to f(x) at all points in the given range but it is not equal to fx at points outside of
the range. For determining a Fourier series of a non-periodic function over a range
2π, exactly the same formulae for the Fourier coefficients are used as in Section
1.3 (i).

Example 4 Let fx be a function of 2 such that fx  x in the range π  x  π

(a) Sketch the graph of fx in the range 3  x  3.
(b) Show that the Fourier series for fx in the interval   x   is
fx  2 sin x  1 sin 2x  1 sin 3x   .
2 3
(c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
  1  1  1  1  .
4 3 5 7
Solution

6
 Example 5 Let fx be a function of 2 such that
0,   x  0
fx  .
x, 0x

(a) Sketch the graph of fx in the range 3  x  3.

(b) Show that the Fourier series for fx in the interval   x   is
2 cos x  1 cos 3x  1 cos 5x  
fx    
4 32 52
 sin x  1 sin 2x  1 sin 3x   .
2 3
(c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
2
(i)   1 1  1  1  and (ii)   1  12  12  12  .
4 3 5 7 8 3 5 7
Solution

Example 6 Let fx be a function of 2 such that

fx  x 2 over the interval    x  .

(a) Sketch the graph of fx in the range 3  x  3.

(b) Show that the Fourier series for fx in the interval   x   is
2
fx    4 cos x  1 cos 2x  12 cos 3x  
3 2 3
(c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
 2  1  1  1  1  .
6 22 32 42
Solution

2.3 Even and odd functions and half-range Fourier series

1. Introduction
It has already been noted in previous sections that the Fourier series is a very
useful tool. The Fourier series has many applications; in fact, any field of physical
science that uses sinusoidal signals, such as engineering, applied mathematics
and chemistry will make use of the Fourier series. Applications are found in
electrical engineering, such as in determining the harmonic components in a.c.
waveforms, in vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image
processing and in quantum mechanics. If it can be found ‘on sight’ that a function is

7
even or odd, then determining the Fourier series becomes an easier exercise. This
is explained in this section, together with half-range Fourier series.
2. Even and odd functions
Even functions
A function y  fx is said to be even if fx  fx for all values of x. Graphs of even
functions are always symmetrical about the y axis (i.e., a mirror image).Two
examples of even functions are y  x 2 and y  cos x
Odd functions
A function y  fx is said to be odd if fx  fx for all values of x. Graphs of odd
functions are always symmetrical about the origin. Two examples of odd functions
are
y  x 3 and y  sin x
Many functions are neither even nor odd.
3. Fourier cosine and Fourier sine series
(a) Fourier cosine series
The Fourier series of an even periodic function fx having period 2π contains
cosine terms only (i.e., contains no sine terms) and may contain a constant term.
Hence

fx  a 0   a n cos nx
n1

where
 
a0  1
2
  fxdx  1
  0 fxdx, due to symmetry

and
 
1
an     fx cos nxdx  2
  0 fx cos nxdx
(b) Fourier sine series
The Fourier series of an odd periodic function fx having period 2π contains sine
terms only (i.e., contains no constant term and no cosine terms). Hence


fx   b n sin nx
n1

where
 
1
bn     fx sin nxdx  2
  0 fx sin nxdx

8
Example 7 Determine the Fourier series for the periodic function defined by:
1,    x   2
 
1,  2
x 2

1, 2
x

which is periodic outside of this range of period 2.

Solution

Example 8 Obtain the Fourier series of the function defined by:

t  ,   t  0
ft 
t  , 0  t  

which is periodic of period 2.

Solution

Example 9 Determine the Fourier series for the function:

1  x,   t  0
fx 
1  x, 0  t  
π2
which is periodic of period 2π. Let x  0 and deduce a series for 8
.
Solution

4. Half-range Fourier series

(a) When a function is defined over the range say 0 to π instead of from 0 to 2π it
may be expanded in a series of sine terms only or of cosine terms only. The series
produced is called a half-range Fourier series.
(b) If a half-range cosine series is required for the function fx  x in the range 0
to π then an even periodic function is required. In Figure 2.13, fx  x is shown
plotted from x  0 to x  π.

9
 Figure 2.13
Since an even function is symmetrical about the fx axis the line AB is constructed
as shown. If the triangular waveform produced is assumed to be periodic of period
2π outside of this range then the waveform is as shown in Figure 2.13. When a
half-range cosine series is required then the Fourier coefficients a 0 and a n are
calculated as in Section 2.3.3 (a), i.e.


fx  a 0   a n cos nx
n1

where

1
a0    0 fxdx,
and

2
an    0 fx cos nxdx.
(c) If a half-range sine series is required for the function fx  x in the range 0 to π
then an odd periodic function is required. In Figure 2.14, fx  x is shown plotted
from x  0 to x  π.

Figure 2.14
Since an odd function is symmetrical about the origin the line CD is constructed as
shown. If the sawtooth waveform produced is assumed to be periodic of period 2π
outside of this range, then the wave form is as shown in Figure 3.14. When a
half-range sine series is required then the Fourier coefficient bn is calculated as in
Section 2.3.3(b), i.e.

10
 
fx   b n sin nx
n1

where

2
bn    0 fx sin nxdx.
Example 10 Determine the half-range sine series to represent the function defined
by:

x, 0x 2
fx  
.
0, 2
x

Solution

Example 11 Obtain (a) the half-range cosine series and (b) the half - range sine
series for the function defined by:

0, 0t 2
ft  
.
1, 2
t

Solution

2.4 Fourier series over any range

1. Introduction
As has been mentioned in preceding lectures, the Fourier series has many
applications; in fact, any field of physical science that uses sinusoidal signals, such
as engineering, applied mathematics and chemistry, will make use of the Fourier
series. In communications, the Fourier series is essential to understanding how a
signal behaves when it passes through filters, amplifiers and communications
channels. In astronomy, radar and digital signal processing Fourier analysis is used
to map the planet. In geology, seismic research uses Fourier analysis, and in
optics, Fourier analysis is used in light diffraction. This lecture explains how to
determine the Fourier series of a periodic function over any range.
2. Expansion of a periodic function of period L
(a) A periodic function fx of period L repeats itself when x increases by L, i.e.,
fx  L  fx. The change from functions dealt with previously having period 2π to
functions having period L is not difficult since it may be achieved by a change of
variable.

11
(b) To find a Fourier series for a function fx in the range  L2  x  L2 a new
variable u is introduced such that fx, as a function of u, has period 2π. If u  2πx
L
then, when x  L 2
, u  π and when x  L
2
, u  π . Also, let fx  f Lu
2
 Fu.
The Fourier series for
Fu is given by:

Fx  a 0  a n cos nu  b n sin nu
n1

where for the range π to π:


a 0  1  Fudu
2 
an  1   Fu cos nudu


and

1
bn     Fu sin nudu
(c) It is however more usual to change the formula of para. (b) to terms of x. Since
u  2πx ,
L
then
du  2π dx,
L
L L
and the limits of integration are 2
to 2
instead of from π to π. Hence the Fourier
series expressed in terms of x is given by:


fx  a 0   a n cos 2nx  b n sin 2nx
n1 L L
L L
where for the range 2
to 2
:
L

a0  1
L
 2

L
fxdx
2
L

an  2
L
 2

L
fx cos 2nx dx
L
2

and
L

bn  2
L
 2

L
fx sin 2nx dx.
L
2

The limits of integration may be replaced by any interval of length L, such as from 0
to L.

12
Example 12 The voltage from a square wave generator is of the form:
0,  10  t  0
vt 
5, 0  t  10

and is periodic of period 20. Show that the Fourier series for the function is given by:
vt  5  10 t 1 3t 1 5t
2  sin 10  3 sin 10  5 sin 10   .

Solution

Example 13 Obtain the Fourier series for the function defined by:
0,  2  x  1
ft  5, 1  x  1
0, 1x2

Solution

Example 14 Determine the Fourier series for the functionft  t in the range t  0
to t  3.
Solution

3. Half-range Fourier series for functions defined over range L

(a) By making the substitution u  πx/L the range x  0 to x  L corresponds to
the range u  0 to u  π. Hence a function may be expanded in a series of either
cosine terms or sine terms only, i.e. a half-range Fourier series.
(b) A half-range cosine series in the range 0 to L can be expanded as:


fx  a 0   a n cos nx
n1 L

L
a0  1
L
 0 fxdx
L
an  2
L
 0 fx cos nx dx
L

(c) A half-range sine series in the range 0 to L can be expanded as:

13
 
fx   b n sin nx
n1 L

where

L
bn  2
L
 0 fx sin nx dx
L

Example 15 Determine the half-range Fourier cosine series for the function
fx  x in the range 0  x  2. Sketch the function within and outside of the given
range.
Solution

Example 16 Find the half-range Fourier sine series for the function fx  x in the
range 0  x  2. Sketch the function within and outside of the given range.
Solution

2.5 The complex or exponential form of a Fourier series

1. Introduction
A Fourier series may be represented not only as a sum of sines and cosines, as in
previous lectures, but as a sum of complex exponentials. The complex
exponentials provide a more convenient and compact way of expressing the
Fourier series than the trigonometric form. It also allows the magnitude and phase
spectra to be easily calculated. This form is widely used by engineers, for example,
in circuit theory and control theory. This lecture explains how the trigonometric and
exponential forms are equivalent.
2. Introduction to the complex or exponential of a Fourier series
The form used for the Fourier series in the introductory lecture consisted of cosine
and sine terms. However, there is another form that is commonly used – one that
directly gives the amplitude terms in the frequency spectrum and relates to phasor
notation. This form involves the use of complex numbers It is called the exponential
or complex form of a Fourier series.
3. Exponential or complex form notation
Recall that:
e iθ  cos θ  i sin  (2.3)

and

14
 e iθ  cos θ  i sin  (2.4)

Adding equations (2.3) and (2.4) gives:

e i  e i  2 cos 

from which,
i i
cos   e  e (2.5)
2
Similarly, equation (2.3) – equation (2.4) gives:
e i  e i  2i sin 

from which,
i i
sin   e  e (2.6)
2i
Thus, since the Fourier series fx over any range L,

fx  a 0   a n cos 2nx  b n sin 2nx
n1 L L

may be written as:

 2nx 2nx 2nx 2nx

fx  a 0   a n ei L  e i L
 bn ei L  e i L

n1 2 2i

Multiplying top and bottom of the b n term by i (and remembering that i 2  1 gives:
 2nx 2nx 2nx 2nx

fx  a 0   a n ei L  e i L
 ib n ei L  e i L

n1 2 2

Rearranging gives:

fx  a 0   a n  ib n ei
2nx
L  a n  ib n e i
2nx
L (2.7)
n1 2 2

The Fourier coefficients a 0 , a n and b n may be replaced by complex coefficients c 0 , c n

and c n such that
c0  a0 (2.8)
c n  a n  ib n (2.9)
2
c n  a n  ib n (2.10)
2
where c n represents the complex conjugate of c n .
Thus, equation (2.7) may be rewritten as:

2nx 2nx
fx  c 0   c n e i L  c n e i L (2.11)
n1

Since e 0  1, the c 0 term can be absorbed into the summation since it is just

15
another term to be added to the summation of the c n term when n  0. Thus,
 
2nx 2nx
fx   c n e i L   c n e i L (2.12)
n0 n1

The c n term may be rewritten by changing the limits n  1 to n   to n  1 to

2nx
n  . Since n has been made negative, the exponential term becomes e i L and
c n becomes c n . Thus,
 
2nx 2nx
fx   c n e i L   cnei L (2.13)
n0 n1

Since the summations now extend from  to 1 and from 0 to , equation (2.13)
may be written as:

2nx
fx   c n e i L (2.14)
n

Equation (2.14) is the complex or exponential form of the Fourier series.

4 The complex coefficient
From equation (2.14), the complex coefficient c n was defined as:
c n  a n  ib n
2
However, a n and b n are defined by:
L

an  2
L
 2

L
fx cos 2nx dx
L
2

and
L

an  2
L
 2

L
fx sin 2nx dx.
L
2

Thus
L L
2
L
 2 L fx cos 2nx
L
dx  i L2  2 L fx sin 2nx
 L
dx
cn  2 2
2
L L

 1
L
2

L
fx cos 2nx dx  i 1
L L

2

L
fx sin 2nx dx
L
2 2

From equations (2.5) and (2.6),

L 2nx 2nx L 2nx 2nx

cn  1  2
fx e
i L  e i L
dx  i 1 
2
fx e
i L  e i L
dx
L L
2
2 L L
2
2i

From which

16
 L 2nx 2nx L 2nx 2nx

cn  1 
2
fx e
i L  e i L
dx  1 
2
fx e
i L  e i L
dx
L L
2
2 L L
2
2
L

 1
L

2

L
fxe i
2nx
L dx (2.15)
2

Care needs to be taken when determining c 0 . If n appears in the denominator of an

expression the expansion can be invalid when n  0. In such circumstances it is
usually simpler to evaluate c 0 by using the relationship:
L

c0  a0  1
L
2

L
fxdx (2.16)
2

Example 17 Determine the complex Fourier series for the function defined by:
0,  2  x  1,
fx  5,  1  x  1,
0, 1  x  2,

The function is periodic outside this range of period 4.

Solution

Example 18 Show that the complex Fourier series for the function ft  t in the
range t  0 to t  1, and of period 1, may be expressed as:
i2nt 
ft  1  i  e n
2 2 n

Solution

Example 19 Show that the exponential form of the Fourier series for the waveform
described by:
0, 4  x  0
fx 
10, 0x4

and has a period of 8, is given by:


fx   n 5i cos n  1e i nx
4 .
n

Solution

17
5 Symmetry relationships
If even or odd symmetry is noted in a function, then time can be saved in
determining coefficients. The Fourier coefficients present in the complex Fourier
series form are affected by symmetry. Summarising from previous lectures:
An even function is symmetrical about the vertical axis and contains no sine terms,
i.e. b n  0. For even symmetry,
L
a0  1
L
 0 fxdx
and
L
an  2
L
 0 fx cos 2nx dx
L
L

 4
L
02
fx cos 2nx dx.
L

An odd function is symmetrical about the origin and contains no cosine terms,
a 0  a n  0. For odd symmetry,
L
bn  2
L
 0 fx sin 2nx dx
L
L

 4
L
02
fx sin 2nx dx.
L
From equation (2.9),
c n  a n  ib n .
2
Thus, for even symmetry, b n  0 and
L

cn  an  2 0 fx cos 2nx dx

2
(2.18)
2 L L

For odd symmetry, a n  0 and

L

c n  ib n  i 2 0 fx sin 2nx dx

2
(2.19)
2 L L

For example, in Example 17, the function fx is even, since the waveform is
symmetrical about the fx  axis. Thus equation (2.15) could have been used,
giving:

18
 L

cn  2
L
02
fx cos 2nx dx
L
2
 2
4
 0 fx cos2nx dx
4
1 2
 1
2
 0 5 cos nx
2
dx   0dx
1
nx
sin
 5 n
2
 5 2
n sin n  0
2 2
2 2
5 sin n ,
 n
2
which is the same answer as in Example 17; however, a knowledge of even
functions has produced the coefficient more quickly.
Example 20 Obtain the Fourier series, in complex form, for the square wave
shown in

Figure 2.25
Solution

Example 21 Show that the complex Fourier series obtained in Example 20 above
is equivalent to
8 sin x  1 sin 3x  1 sin 5x  1 sin 7x  
fx  
3 5 7
Solution

2.6 Fourier Integral and Transformation

1. Introduction
A Fourier series has been shown to represent an arbitrary function fx on an
interval
 L  x  L.
2 2

19
And because the series is periodic with period L, the representation of fx in this
fundamental interval is represented by periodicity for all x outside the interval.
However,
even when fx is defined outside the fundamental interval does not necessarily
mean
now that the function and its periodic extension concide outside the interval. This
means that if a non-periodic function is to be represented over a large arbitrary
interval, some generalization of a function series is required.
L
Letting limits be infinite (that is 2
 ) in a Fourier series lead to the introduction of
a
different representation called Fourier integral representation where the function
fx is defined for all x and need not to be periodic. This representation forms the
basis of an integral form called the Fourier transform.

2. Properties of Fourier Transform

Fourier Integral
In complex representation is the basis of Fourier series transformation referred to
as the integral formula of Fourier.
If a non-periodic function fx satisfies the Dirichlet conditions in an arbitrary finite
interval and furthermore, the integral

  |ft|dt,
is convergent, then
 
ft  1
2
    e it fdd. (2.23)

At every point where the function ft is continuous and

ft  0  ft  0 1   d   f cos t  d,
  (2.24)
2  

at the point of discontinuity.

Other equivalent forms of Fourier integral are:
 
ft  1
2
    f cos t  dd (2.25)

which is called the Fourier integral representation of ft.

The Fourier integral representation in (2.25) can be written in the simpler form

20
 
ft   0 a cos t  b sin td, (2.26)

with coefficients
 
1
a     ft cos tdt and 1
b     ft sin tdt (2.27)

The convergence properties of Fourier series can be shown to be transferred to the

Fourier integral representation of fx if, in addition to the integral of fx being
absolutely convergent over , , it also satisfies certain other conditions. These
conditions, called Dirichlet conditions, are as follows:
(i) In any finite interval fx has only a finite number of maxima and minima.
(ii) In any finite interval fx has only a finite number of bounded jump
discontinuities
and no infinite jump discontinuities.

Theorem 2.1 Fourier integral theorem Let fx satisfy Dirichlet conditions, and
suppose the (sufficiency) conditions that fx be both integrable and absolutely
integrable over the interval   x   are both satisfied, so each of the integrals
 
 fxdx and  |fx|dx exists. Then
 
 
1 fx  0  fx  0  1
2   0 d   f cos ω  xd
or, equivalently,

1 fx  0  fx  0 
2
 0 a cos t  b sin td,
where
 
1
a     ft cos tdt and 1
b     ft sin tdt
Example 22 Find the Fourier integral representation of fx  e |x| .
Solution

Example 23 Find the Fourier integral representation of

e x , x0
fx 
0, x0

and use the Fourier integral theorem to find the value of the resulting integral when
(a) x  0, (b) x  0, and (c) x  0.
Solution

21
3. Fourier cosine integral and the Fourier sine integral
When fx is an even function, fu sin ωu is an odd function of u so bω  0 and

2
a    0 fu cos udu (2.28)

so that (2.26) simplifies to the Fourier cosine integral representation of fx


ft   0 a cos td (2.29)

Similarly, when fx is an odd function, fu cos ωu is an odd function of u, so

aω  0 and

2
b    0 fu sin udu (2.30)

causing (2.26) to simplify to the Fourier sine integral representation of fx given
by

ft   0 b sin td (2.31)

Example 24 Derive the Fourier cosine and the Fourier sine integrals of fx  e kx ,
where x  0 and k  0.
Solution

Fourier cosine transform

For an even function, the Fourier integral is the Fourier cosine integral. We have
 
(a) fx   0 a cos xd where (b) 2
a    0 fu cos udu. (2.32)

We now set
2
a   f c .

where c represents cosine. Then from (2.32b), writing u  x, we have


f c   2
  0 fx cos xdx, (2.33)

and from (2.32a)


fx  2
  0 f c  cos xd, (2.34)

In (2.33) we integrate with respect to x and in (2.34) with respect to . Formula

(233) gives from fx a new function f c , called the Fourier cosine transform of

22
fx. Formula (2.34) gives us back fx from f c , and we therefore fx the inverse
Fourier transform of f c .

The process of obtaining the transform f c from a given f is called the Fourier
cosine transform or the Fourier cosine transform method.
Fourier sine transform
For an odd function, the Fourier integral is the Fourier sine integral. We have
 
(a) fx   0 a sin xd where (b) 2
b    0 fu sin udu. (2.35)

We now set

2
b   f s .

where s represents sine. Then from (2.35b), writing u  x, we have


f s   2
  0 fx sin xdx, (2.36)

This is called the Fourier sine transform of fx. Similarly from (2.35a) we have

fx  2
  0 f s  sin xd, (2.37)

This is called the inverse Fourier sine transform of fx.

The process of obtaining the transform f s from a given f is called the Fourier
sine transform of or the Fourier sine transform method.
Alternative Notation
 c f  f c ,  s f  f s

and  1 1
c and  s for the inverses of  c and  s , respectively.

Example 25 Find the Fourier cosine and Fourier sine transforms of the function
k, if 0  x  a
fx 
0, if x  a.

Solution

Example 26 Find the Fourier cosine transform of

fx  e x .

Solution

23
Linearity and Transforms of Derivatives
If is integrable on the positive x  axis and piecewise continuous on every finite
interval, then the Fourier cosine and sine transform on fx exist.
Furthermore, if f and g have Fourier cosine and sine transforms, so does
af  bg for any constants a and b, and by (2.33)
(a)  c af  bg  a c f  b c g and (b)  s af  bg  a s f  b s g (2.38)

Theorem 2.2 Cosine and Sine Transforms of Derivatives

Let fx be continuous and integrable on the x  axis, let f  x be piecewise
continuous on every finite interval, and fx  0 as x  . Then

(a)  c f  x   s fx  2

 f0 and (b)  s f x   c fx

(2.39)

Formula (2.39a) with f  instead of f gives (when f  , f  satisfy the respective

assumptions for f, f  in Theorem 2.2)

 c f  x   s fx  2 
 f 0

hence by (2.39b)

 c f  x   2  c fx  2 
 f 0 (1.40a)

Similarly

 s f  x   2  s fx  2 (1.40b)

 f0

Example 27 Find the Fourier cosine transform of

fx  e ax , where a  0.

Solution

24