2.

3 Velocity, Acceleration, and

Second Derivatives
When Sir Isaac Newton was working on his “method of
fluxions,” he recognized how these concepts could be applied to
the study of objects in motion. In this section, you will explore
the use of derivatives to analyse the motion of objects travelling
in a straight line. Three related concepts will be considered in
relation to this type of motion:
• displacement , or the distance and direction an object has
moved from an origin over a period of time
• velocity , or the rate of change of displacement of an object
with respect to time
• acceleration , or the rate of change of velocity with respect
to time

Investigate A What is the derivative of a derivative?

Method 1: Use Paper and Pencil

1. a) Determine the derivative of y  x3.
b) Determine the derivative of the derivative you found in part a).
c) R e f l e c t How is the result in part b) related to the original function? CONNECTIONS
d) R e f l e c t Why does it make sense to call your result in There are several notations for
part b) a second derivative ? the second derivative, including
d 2y
2. a) Sketch graphs of y, y′, and y″. y ", f "(x), 2 , D2[f (x)], and
dx
b) R e f l e c t Describe how the graphs show the relationships among the D 2x [f ( x )].
three functions.
Method 2: Use Technology
1. a) Consider the function y  x3. Use a graphing Tools
calculator to determine the derivative of • graphing calculator
the derivative of this function. Enter the • graphing software
information as shown, and then change
the window variables to x  [4, 4],
y  [20, 20], Yscl  2. Before pressing
GRAPH , draw a sketch to predict the shape of the graphs of
Y1, Y2, and Y3.
b) Press GRAPH . Was your prediction in part a) accurate?
c) R e f l e c t What is the relationship between the three graphs?
2. a) Determine equations for the graphs of Y2 and Y3.
b) R e f l e c t Is it possible to differentiate a derivative? Why does it make
sense to call Y3 a second derivative?

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 97

 Investigate B What is the relationship between displacement, velocity, and
acceleration?
In this activity, you will use a motion sensor to gather displacement and
time data for a ball rolling up and down a ramp. You will investigate the
displacement-time, velocity-time, and acceleration-time graphs, and form
connections with derivatives.
Tools 1. Set up the ramp as shown.
• graphing calculator
CBRTM
• Calculator-Based Ranger (CBR™)
• calculator-to-CBR™ cable
• ramp at least 3 m long
Ball
• large ball, such as a basketball

2. Prepare the CBR™ and calculator to collect data.

Technology Tip • Connect the CBR™ to the calculator using the calculator-to-CBR™
All settings, except TIME (S), can cable. Ensure that both ends of the cable are firmly in place.
be changed by using the cursor
• Press APPS . Select 2:CBL/CBR. Press ENTER .
keys to position the cursor beside
the current option and pressing • To access the programs available, select
ENTER to cycle through the 3:RANGER.
choices. • When the RANGER menu is displayed,
press ENTER .
Technology Tip • From the MAIN MENU screen, select
The CBR™ is most accurate in an 1:SETUP/SAMPLE.
interval from about 1 m to 3 m. • To change the TIME (S) setting, move the cursor down to TIME (S)
Practise rolling the ball such that and enter 5. Press ENTER .
it stays within this interval on
the ramp. • Move the cursor up to START NOW at the top of the screen, and
press ENTER .
3. Collect the data.
• Align the CBR™ on the ramp, as shown in step 1.
• Press ENTER , and roll the ball.

98 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2

4. The displacement-time graph will be displayed. If necessary, the graph can Technology Tip
be redrawn to display the part that represents the motion in more detail. If you see any spikes, like those
Press ENTER to display the PLOT MENU screen, and choose shown here, or other “artifacts”
on the graph, it means that the
4:PLOT TOOLS. Select 1:SELECT DOMAIN. Move the cursor to the
CBR™ is intermittently losing the
point where the motion begins and press ENTER . Move the cursor to the
signal. Ensure that it is aimed
point where the motion ends and press ENTER . properly, and that the ball you
5. Use the TRACE operation to investigate displacement and time along the are using is big enough to reflect
curve. the sound waves. If necessary,
repeat the data collection step
a) Determine the time when the ball was closest to the CBR™. Describe
until you have a graph free of
what point this represents on the curve. artifacts.
b) For what time interval was the displacement increasing? For what time
interval was it decreasing?
c) R e f l e c t In which direction was the ball rolling during the intervals in
part b)?
6. a) Sketch a graph of your prediction for the corresponding velocity-time
graph. Give reasons for your prediction.
b) Return to the PLOT MENU screen. Select 2:VEL-TIME to display the Technology Tip
velocity-time graph. How does your sketch from part a) compare to the The data for t, d, v, and a are
actual graph? stored in L1, L2, L3, and L4,
c) R e f l e c t Explain the significance of the time you found in step 5a) in respectively.
regard to the velocity-time graph.
d) R e f l e c t How are the intervals you found in step 5b) reflected on the
velocity-time graph? Explain.
e) R e f l e c t Think about rates of change and derivatives. What is the
relationship between the distance-time graph and the velocity-time
graph? Justify your answer.
7. a) Sketch a graph of your prediction for the corresponding
acceleration-time graph. Give reasons for your prediction.
b) Return to the PLOT MENU screen. Select 3:ACCEL-TIME to display
the acceleration-time graph. How does your sketch from part a)
compare to the actual graph?
c) For what time interval was the acceleration positive? For what interval
was it negative? How do these intervals reflect the motion of the ball?
d) R e f l e c t Think about rates of change and derivatives. What is the
relationship between the velocity-time graph and the acceleration-time
graph? Justify your answer.
8. R e f l e c t How can derivatives be used to determine the relationships
between displacement-time, velocity-time, and acceleration-time graphs?
Justify your reasoning.

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 99

 Apply Derivative Rules to Determine the Value of
Example 1
a Second Derivative
1
Determine f″(2) for the function f (x)  x3  x 2  3x  4 .
3
Solution
1
f (x)  x3  x 2  3x  4
3
1
f ′(x)  (3x 2 ) 2 x  3
3
 x2  2x  3
f″(x)  2x  2 Differentiate f ′(x).
f″(2)  2(2)  2  2
The following graphs show the relationship between the original function,
f (x), the derivative, f′(x), and the second derivative, f″(x). The point (2, 2)
on the graph of f″(x) corresponds to f″(2)  2.

zero slope y positive

at x  1 y  f (x) slope for
4
negative x3
slope for
2
1  x  3

4 2 0 2 4 6 8x
positive 2
slope for
x  1 4 zero slope
at x  3

negative y positive Negative y-values for 1  x  3 on

slope for y  f ′(x) slope for the derivative graph correspond to
4
x1 x1 negative slopes on the original graph.
2 Positive y-values for x  1 and x 3
on the derivative graph correspond to
4 2 0 2 4 6 8x positive slopes on the original graph.
The x-intercepts, 1 and 3, of the
2
derivative graph correspond to points
4 zero slope
on f (x) that have zero slope.
at x  1

y Negative y-values for x  1 on the

y  f ″(x) second derivative graph correspond to
4
positive negative slopes on the derivative graph.
values
2
(2, 2) Positive y-values for x 1 on the
second derivative graph correspond to
4 2 0 2 4 6 8x positive slopes on the derivative graph.
2 The x-intercept, 1, of the second
negative derivative graph corresponds to the
values
4 point on f′(x) that has zero slope.

100 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
Displacement (s) Velocity (v) Acceleration (a)
Definition distance an object has rate of change of rate of change of
in Words moved from the origin displacement (s) with velocity (v) with respect
over a period of time (t) respect to time (t) to time (t)
Relationship s(t) s′(t)  v(t) s″(t)  v′(t)  a(t)

Possible Units m m/s m/s2

Two terms are often misused to describe motion in everyday speech: speed and
velocity. These are sometimes used interchangeably, but they are, in fact,
different.

Speed is a scalar quantity. It describes the magnitude of motion, but does not
describe direction. Velocity , on the other hand, is a vector quantity. It has
both magnitude and direction. The answer in a velocity problem will be either
a negative or a positive value. The sign indicates the direction the object is
travelling. That is, the original position of the object is considered the origin.
One direction from the origin is assigned positive values, and the opposite
direction is assigned negative values, depending on what makes sense for the
problem.

Solve a Velocity and Acceleration Problem

Example 2
Involving a Falling Object
A construction worker accidently drops a hammer from a height of 90 m
while working on the roof of a new apartment building. The height, s, in
metres, of the hammer after t seconds can be modelled by the function
s(t)  90  4.9t2, t  0.
a) Determine the average velocity of the hammer between 1 s and 4 s.
b) Explain the significance of the sign of your result in part a).
c) Determine the velocity of the hammer at 1 s and at 4 s.
d) When will the hammer hit the ground?
e) Determine the impact velocity of the hammer.
f) Determine the acceleration function. What do you notice? Interpret it for
this situation.

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 101

 Solution
a) Average velocity  Δ s
Δt
s(4)  s(1)

41
[90  4.9(4)2 ]  [90  4.9(1)2 ]

41
73.5

3
24..5
The average velocity of the hammer between 1 s and 4 s is 24.5 m/s.
b) In this type of problem, movement in the upward direction is commonly
assigned positive values. Therefore, the negative answer indicates that the
motion of the hammer is downward. (Note that the speed of the hammer
is 24.5 m/s.)
c) v(t)  s′(t)
d
 (90  4.9t 2 )
dt
9.8t
Substitute t  1 and t  4.
v(1)  9.8(1)
 9.8
v(4)  9.8(4)
 39.2
The velocity of the hammer at 1 s is 9.8 m/s, and at 4 s it is 39.2 m/s.
Once again, the negative answers indicate downward movement.
d) The hammer hits the ground when the displacement is zero.
Solve s(t)  0.
90  4.9t 2  0
90
t2 
4 .9
⬟ 18.37
t ⬟ 4.29
Since t  0, t ⬟ 4.29.
The hammer takes approximately 4.3 s to hit the ground.
e) The impact velocity is the velocity of the hammer when it hits the ground.
v(4.3)  9.8(4.3)
 42.14
The impact velocity of the hammer is about 42 m/s downward.

102 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2

 CONNECTIONS
f) The acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity function.
Earlier in the chapter, air
a(t)  v ′(t)
resistance was defined as a
d force that counters the effects
 (9.8t)
dt of gravity as falling objects
9.8 encounter friction with air
molecules. When this force,
The hammer falls at a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s2. This value is
also called atmospheric drag,
the acceleration due to gravity for any falling object on Earth (when air becomes equal to the force of
resistance is ignored). gravity, a falling object will
accelerate no further. Its velocity
remains constant after this point.
This maximum velocity is called
In general, if the acceleration and velocity of an object have the same sign at a terminal velocity.
particular time, then the object is being pushed in the direction of the motion,
and the object is speeding up. If the acceleration and velocity have opposite
signs at a particular time, the object is being pushed in the opposite direction
to its motion, and it is slowing down.

An object is speeding up at time t if v(t)  a(t) 0.

An object is slowing down at time t if v(t)  a(t)  0.

Example 3 Relate Velocity and Acceleration

The position of a particle moving along a s
straight line can be modelled by the function
24
s(t)  t3  12t2  36t, where distance, s, is in
metres; time, t, is in seconds; and t  0. s(t)  t 3  12t 2  36t
12
a) A graph of the position function is
given. Sketch graphs of the velocity and 0 2 4 6 8 t
acceleration functions.
b) Determine when the particle is speeding up
and when it is slowing down. How does
this relate to the slope of the position function?

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 103

 Solution
a) s s(t) Begin with t  2 and t  6 on the graph
negative of s(t), where the slope of the tangent is
24
slope zero. Mark these as the t-intercepts of
positive 2  t  6 positive
12 slope slope the derivative graph, v(t).
0t2 t 6
The graph of s(t) has positive slope over
0 2 4 6 8 10 t
the intervals [0, 2) and (6, 8), so the
12 graph of v(t) is positive (lies above the
t-axis) over these intervals. The graph of
24
s(t) has negative slope over the interval
(2, 6), so the graph of v(t) is negative
(lies below the t-axis) over this interval.
v positive v(t)
24 velocity positive
0t2 velocity
12 t 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 t Begin with t  4 on the graph of v(t),

12 where the slope of the tangent is zero.
negative
velocity
Mark this as the t-intercept of the
24 derivative graph, a(t).
2t6

a a(t) The graph of v(t) has negative slope over

24 the interval [0, 4), so the graph of a(t) is
positive negative over this interval. The graph of
12 acceleration v(t) has positive slope over the interval
t 4 (4, 8), so the graph of a(t) is positive over
0 2 4 6 8 10 t this interval.
12
negative
24 acceleration
0t4

b) The graph of v(t) changes sign at the t-intercepts 2 and 6. The graph of
a(t) changes sign at the t-intercept 4. The signs of v(t) and a(t) are easily
observed by determining whether the respective graph lies below or
above the t-axis. Consider the following four time intervals: [0, 2), (2, 4),
(4, 6), (6,8). The following table summarizes this information.

104 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2

 Motion of Description of
Interval v(t) a(t) v(t) ⴛ a(t) Particle Slope of s(t)

slowing down positive

[0, 2)    and moving slope that is
forward decreasing

speeding up negative
(2, 4)    and moving in slope that is
reverse decreasing
slowing down negative
(4, 6)    and moving in slope that is
reverse increasing

speeding up positive
(6, 8)    and moving slope that is
forward increasing

Therefore, the particle is slowing down between 0 s and 2 s and again

between 4 s and 6 s. The particle is speeding up between 2 s and 4 s
and after 6 s.

Example 4 Analyse and Interpret a Position-Time Graph

The graph shows the position function of a motorcycle. Describe the slope
of the graph, in terms of being positive, negative, increasing, or decreasing,
over the interval between consecutive pairs of points, beginning at the origin.
For each interval, determine the sign of the velocity and the acceleration by
considering the slope of the graph.
s(t)
B

A C
D E
F
0 t
5 10

Solution
The analysis of this situation is organized in the following table.

Interval Slope of Graph Velocity Acceleration

0 to A positive slope that is increasing  

A to B positive slope that is decreasing  

B to C negative slope that is decreasing  

C to D negative slope that is increasing  

D to E slope  zero, horizontal segment 0 0

E to F negative slope that is decreasing  

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 105

 < KEY CONCEPTS
>
The second derivative of a function is determined by differentiating
the first derivative of the function.
For a given position function s(t), its velocity function is v(t), or s′(t),
and its acceleration function is a(t), v′(t), or s″(t).
When v(t)  0, the object is at rest, or stationary. There are many
instances where an object will be momentarily at rest when changing
directions. For example, a ball thrown straight upward will be
momentarily at rest at its highest point, and will then begin to
descend.
When v(t) 0, the object is moving in the positive direction.
When v(t)  0, the object is moving in the negative direction.
When a(t) 0, the velocity of an object is increasing (i.e., the object is
accelerating).
When a(t)  0, the velocity of an object is decreasing (i.e., the object is
decelerating).
An object is speeding up if v(t)  a(t) 0 and
slowing down if v(t)  a(t)  0.

Communicate Your Understanding

C1 Under what conditions is an object speeding up? Under what conditions
is it slowing down? Support your answers with examples.
C2 Give a graphical interpretation of positive velocity and negative
velocity.
C3 How are speed and velocity similar? How are they different?
C4 What is the relationship between the degrees of s(t), v(t), and a(t), if s(t)
is a polynomial function?

A Practise
1. Determine the second derivative of each 2. Determine f″(3) for each function.
function. a) f (x)  2x4  3x3  6x2  5
a) y  2x3  21 b) f (x)  4x3  5x  6
b) s(t)  t4  5t3  2t2  t 2
c) f (x)   x5  x3  0.5
1 1 5
c) h(x)  x6  x5
6 5 d) f (x)  (3x2  2)(1  x)
1 3
d) f (x)  x  2 x 2  8 e) f (x)  (6x  5)(x2  4)
4
1
e) g(x)  x5  3x4  2x3 f) f (x)  4x5  x 4  3x 2
2
f) h(t)  4.9t2  25t  4

106 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2

3. Determine the velocity and acceleration 6. Copy and complete the table for each graph in
functions for each position function s(t). question 5.
Where possible, simplify the functions before
Motion Description
differentiating. of of Slope
a) s(t)  5  7t  8t3 Interval v(t) a(t) v(t) ⴛ a(t) Object of s(t)

b) s(t)  (2t  3)(4  5t)

c) s(t)  (t  2)(3t2  t  5)
2t 4  t 3  8t 2
d) s(t) 
4t 2
4. Determine the velocity and acceleration at t  2
for each position function s(t), where s is in 7. For each position function y  s(t), sketch
metres and t is in seconds. graphs of y  v(t) and y  a(t).
a) s(t)  t3  3t2  t  1 a) s
b) s(t)  4.9t2  15t  1
c) s(t)  t(3t  5)(1  2t) y  s(t)
d) s(t)  (t2  2)(t2  2)

5. In each graph, identify which curve or line t

0
represents y  s(t), y  v(t), and y  a(t). Justify
your choices.
a) y

b) s
2

y  s(t)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t

3 0 t

b) y
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 t

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 107

8. Answer the following for each graph of c) s
y  s(t). Explain your reasoning. y  s(t)
i) Is the velocity increasing, decreasing, or
constant?
ii) Is the acceleration positive, negative, or
zero?
a) s
0 t

y  s(t) d) s

y  s(t)

0 t

b) s t
0

y  s(t) e) s

y  s(t)

0 t

0 t

B Connect and Apply

9. The graph shows the position function of a bus e) Is the bus speeding up or slowing down at
during a 15-min trip. A, B, and D?
s f) What happens at J?
C
B D H I 10. Refer to the graph in question 9. Is the
A E G acceleration positive, zero, or negative during
F
J the following intervals?
0 5 10 15 t a) 0 to A
b) C to D
a) What is the initial velocity of the bus?
c) E to F
b) What is the bus’s velocity at C and at F?
d) G to H
c) Is the bus going faster at A or at B? Explain.
e) F to G
d) What happens to the motion of the bus
between H and I?

108 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2

11. The graph shows a velocity function. a) Determine the average velocity of the bottle
v(t) H
between 1 s and 3 s.
B
b) Determine the velocity of the bottle at 3 s.
c) When will the bottle hit the ground?
F G
C
A d) Determine the impact velocity of the bottle.
E
D 13. During a fireworks Reasoning and Proving

display, a starburst Representing Selecting Tools

0 t rocket is shot upward Problem Solving

with an initial velocity Connecting Reflecting

of 34.5 m/s from a Communicating
a) State whether the acceleration is positive, platform 3.2 m high. The height, h, in metres,
negative, or zero for the following intervals of the rocket after t seconds can be modelled
or points. by the function h(t)  4.9t2  34.5t  3.2.
i) 0 to B a) Determine the velocity and acceleration of
ii) B to D the rocket at 3 s.
iii) D to F b) When the rocket reaches its maximum
iv) F to G height, it explodes to create a starburst
display. How long does it take for the
v) G to H rocket to reach its maximum height?
vi) at B and at D c) At what height does the starburst display
b) Describe similarities and differences in the occur?
acceleration for the given intervals. Justify d) Sometimes the rockets malfunction and do
your response. not explode. How long would it take for an
i) 0 to A, D to E, and G to H unexploded rocket to return to the ground?
ii) A to B and E to F e) At what velocity would it hit the ground?
iii) B to C and C to D 14. Consider the motion of a truck that is braking
12. A water bottle rolls off a rooftop patio from a while moving forward. Justify your answer to
height of 80 m. The distance, s, in metres, the each of the following.
bottle is above the ground after t seconds can a) Is the velocity positive or negative?
be modelled by the function s(t)  80  4.9t2, b) Is the velocity increasing or decreasing?
t  0.
c) Is the acceleration positive or negative?

C Extend and Challenge

15. A bald eagle flying horizontally at 48 km/h c) Write an equation to represent the vertical
drops its prey from a height of 50 m. displacement of the prey as it falls. (Assume
a) Write an equation to represent the that the acceleration due to gravity is
horizontal displacement of the prey while it 9.8 m/s2.)
is still in the jaws of the eagle. d) Determine the velocity and acceleration
b) Determine the velocity and acceleration functions for the prey’s vertical
functions for the prey’s horizontal displacement.
displacement. e) What is the prey’s vertical velocity when it
hits the ground?

2.3 Velocity, Acceleration, and Second Derivatives • MHR 109

 f) When is the vertical speed greater than the 18. The position function s(t)  0.5a0t2  v0t  s0
horizontal speed? can also be used to model the motion of an
g) Develop an equation to represent the total object moving along a straight line, where s is
velocity. Determine the velocity. in metres and t is in seconds, s0 is the initial
position of the object, v0 is the initial velocity
h) Develop an equation to represent the total
of the object, and a0 is the acceleration. The
acceleration.
driver of a pickup truck travelling at 86.4 km/h
i) Determine the prey’s acceleration 4 s after it suddenly notices a stop sign and applies the
is dropped. brakes, resulting in a constant deceleration of
12 m/s2.
16. The position function of an object moving
along a straight line is s(t)  2t3  15t2  36t  10, a) Determine the position, velocity, and
where t is in seconds and s is in metres. acceleration functions for this situation.

a) What is the velocity of the object at 1 s and b) How long does it take for the truck to stop?
at 4 s? What is the object’s acceleration at
19. Math Contest If p and q are two polynomials
these times?
such that p″(x)  q″(x) for x  , which of the
b) When is the object momentarily at rest? following must be true?
What is the object’s position when it is
A p(x)  q(x) for x 
stopped?
B p′(x)  q′(x) for x 
c) When is the object moving in a positive
direction? When is it moving in a negative C p(0)  q(0)  0
direction? D The graph of y  p(x)  q(x) is a horizontal
d) Determine the total distance travelled by the line.
object during the first 7 s. E The graph of y  p′(x)  q′(x) is a horizontal
e) Sketch a graph to illustrate the motion of line.
the object.
20. Math Contest
17. The height, h, in metres, after t seconds of any
object that is shot into the air can be modelled
f (n) (x)  冢 冢 冢
d d d
dx dx dx
d
… (f (x)…)
dx 冣冣冣
denotes

by the position function h(t)  0.5gt2  v0t  s0, the nth derivative of the function f (x). If
where s0 is the initial height of the object, v0 f′(x)  g(x) and g′(x)  f (x), then f (n)(x) is
is the initial velocity of the object, and g is the equal to
acceleration due to gravity (g  9.8 m/s2). 1 1
A [1  (1)n ]f (x)  [1  (1)n1 ]g(x)
a) Determine the velocity function and the 2 2
acceleration function for h(t). (1) n (1)n1
B [1  (1)n ]f (x)  [1  (1)n1 ]g(x)
b) An arrow is shot upward at 17.5 m/s from 2 2
a position in a tree 4 m above the ground. (1)n1 (1)n
C [1  (1)n ]f (x)  [1  (1)n1 ]g(x)
State the position, velocity, and acceleration 2 2
functions for this situation.
in i n1
c) Suppose a flare is shot upward, and at
D [1  (1)n ]f (x)  [1  (1)n1 ]g(x),
2 2
t  2 s its velocity is 10.4 m/s and its where i  1
height is 42.4 m. Determine the position,
velocity, and acceleration functions for this i n1 in
E [1  (1)n1 ]f (x)  [1  (1)n ]g(x),
situation. 2 2
where i  1

110 MHR • Calculus and Vectors • Chapter 2