GEC 006a MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN reasoning.

It is important in the sense that it helps us

WORLD to reason correctly.
REVIEWER Tautology is a compound statement that is true for all
possible combinations of the truth values of the
Patterns can be sequential, spatial, temporal, and propositional variables also called logically true.
even linguistic.
Contradiction is a compound statement that is false
A fractal is a never-ending pattern. Fractals are for all possible combinations of the truth values of the
infinitely complex patterns that self-similar are across propositional variables also called logically false or
different scales. absurdity.

Contingency is a compound statement that can be

Mathematics is the study of pattern and structure. either true or false, depending on the truth values of
the propositional variables are neither a tautology nor
Leonardo Fibonacci, the prestigious mathematician a contradiction.
who came up with the famous sequence just by
calculating the ideal expansion pairs of rabbits over
Reasoning is the practice of stating ideas clearly and
the course of one year.
precisely to arrive at a conclusion.

The language of mathematics makes it easy to

Conditional is a statement in mathematics that
express the kinds of symbols, syntax and rules that
consists of a hypothesis conclusion. These statements
mathematicians like to do and characterized by the
are usually written in if-then form.
following:
Proof is conclusive evidence and certainty is a
a) precise (able to make very fine distinctions)
conviction that something is true.
Example. The use of mathematical symbol is only
done based on its meaning and purpose. Like +
Statistic, the data gathered obtained from the sample.
means add, means subtract, x multiply and
means divide.
Parameter, the data obtained from the population.
b) concise (able to say things briefly) Example: the
long English sentence can be shortened using Lower class limit- the smallest data value that can be
mathematical symbols. Eight plus two equals ten included in the class.
which means 8 + 2 = 10
Upper class limit- the largest data value that can be
c) powerful (able to express complex thoughts with included in the class.
relative ease). Example. The application of
critical thinking and problem-solving skill a) Biconditional.
requires the comprehension, analysis and ❖ Property 5: If p and q are true or both
reasoning to obtain the correct solution. false, then 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 is true; if p and q
have opposite truth values, then 𝑝 ⟷
Expression or mathematical expression is a finite 𝑞 is false.
combination of symbols that is well-formed according b) Exclusive-or.
to rules that depend on the context. It is a correct ❖ Property 6: If p and q are true or
arrangement of mathematical symbols used to both false, then 𝑝⨁𝑞 is false; if p and
represent a mathematical object of interest. q have opposite truth values, then
𝑝⨁𝑞 is true.
Mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English
sentence; it is a correct arrangement of mathematical Reasoning
symbols that states a complete thought. ✓ Is the practice of stating ideas clearly and
precisely to arrive at a conclusion.
Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or Kinds of Reasoning (Zuela, et al, 2009)
usage which is generally agreed upon by A. Intuition
mathematicians. • Similar to guessing
• Also called as reasoning by guessing, or
A Set is a collection of well-defined objects that reasoning by common sense.
contains no duplicates. • It is the ability to acquire knowledge without
proof, evidence or conscious reasoning.
Null Set, the empty set, or null set, which has no B. Analogy
members at all. A set with only one member is called • A form of reasoning in which other similarities
a singleton or a singleton set. are inferred from a particular similarity
between two or things.
Logic is technically defined as “the science or study on • Also called as reasoning by comparison.
how to evaluate arguments and reasoning.” Logic
helps us to differentiate correct reasoning from poor
 C. Inductive Reasoning a) Conjunction. The conjunction of the
• The type of reasoning that comes up to a proposition p and q is the compound
conclusion by examining specific examples proposition “p and q.” Symbolically,
is called inductive reasoning. 𝑝 ʌ 𝑞, where is the symbol for "and.”
• A conclusion that is made by applying ❖ Property 1: If p is true and q is
inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. true, then, 𝑝 ʌ 𝑞 is true; otherwise,
• Conjectures may or may not be correct. 𝑝 ʌ 𝑞 is false. Meaning, the
D. Deductive Reasoning conjunction of two propositions
• Is a valid form used in proving observations is true only if (each/both)
and arriving at conclusions. proposition is true.
• It is a process by which one makes conclusions p q 𝑝ʌ𝑞 (p
based on previously accepted general and q)
assumptions, procedures, and principles. T T T
B. Logic and Computer Addition T F F
➢ The term “logic” is often used, but not F T F
always in its technical sense. F F F
➢ Logic is technically defined as “the science b) Disjunction. The disjunction of the
or study of how to evaluate arguments proposition p, q is the compound proposition
and reasoning.” “p or q.” Symbolically, 𝑝V𝑞, where is the
➢ “Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic)” symbol for” or.”
is a branch of mathematics with close ❖ Property 2: If p is true or q is true or
connections to computer science. if both p and q are true, then 𝑝v𝑞 is true;
➢ It includes both the mathematical study of otherwise 𝑝V𝑞 is false. Meaning, the
logic and the applications of formal logic to disjunction of two propositions is false
other areas of mathematics. only if each proposition is false.
➢ The existence of mathematical logic has p q 𝑝V𝑞
contributed to, and has been aggravated by, T T T
the study of foundations of mathematics. The T F T
study started in the late 19th century with F T T
the development of axiomatic frameworks for
F F F
analysis, geometry and arithmetic.
c) Negation. The negation of the proposition p
C. Propositions
is denoted by ~𝑝, where ~ is the symbol for
a) A proposition (or statement) is a
“not.”
“declarative sentence (.)”, which is either
❖ Property 3: If p is true, ~p is false.
true or false, but cannot be both.
Meaning, the truth value of the
b) The truth value of the propositions is the
negation of a proposition is
truth and falsity of the proposition
always the REVERSE of the truth
c) Example: Which of the following are
value of the original proposition.
propositions?
p ~p q ~q
❖ Pasig is the capital of the Philippines.
T F T F
FALSE = PROPOSITION
T F F T
❖ What day is it? = NOT A PROPOSITION
F T T F
❖ Help me, please. = NOT A
PROPOSITION F T F T
❖ He is handsome. = NOT A d) Conditional. The conditional (or implication)
PROPOSITION of the proposition p and q is the compound
➢ Answer: proposition “if p then q.” Symbolically, 𝑝 → 𝑞,
1) “Manila is the capital of the where → is the symbol for “if then.” p is called
Philippines”. Is true, therefore it is a hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q
proposition. is called conclusion (or consequent or
2) “What day is it?” It is a question; consequence).
it cannot be considered either true or ❖ Property 4: The conditional
false and thus is not a proposition. proposition 𝑝 → 𝑞 is FALSE ONLY
3) “Help me, please.” It cannot be when p is TRUE and q is FALSE;
categorized as true or false and otherwise 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true. Meaning 𝑝
therefore is not a proposition. → 𝑞 states that a true
4) “He is handsome.” The sentence is proposition cannot imply a false
neither true nor false because “he” proposition.
is not specified and thus it is not a p q 𝑝→𝑞
proposition. T T T
D. Basic Logical Operators/Truth Table T F F
p=hypothesis, q=conclusion F T T
F F T
e) Biconditional. The biconditional of the
proposition p and q is the compound
proposition “p if and only if q.” Symbolically,
𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞, where ⟷ is the symbol for “if and only
if.”
❖ Property 5: If p and q are true or
both false, then 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 is true; if
p and q have opposite truth
values, then 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 is false.
p q 𝑝⟷𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
f) Exclusive-or. The exclusive-or of the
proposition p and q is the compound
proposition “p exclusive-or q. symbolically,
𝑝⨁𝑞, where ⨁ is the symbol for “exclusive-
or.”
❖ Property 6: If p and q are true or
both false, then 𝑝⨁𝑞 is false; if p
and q have opposite truth
values, then 𝑝⨁𝑞 is true.
p q 𝑝⨁𝑞
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
E. Logical Equivalence and Forms of
Conditional Propositions
❖ Tautology is a compound
statement that is true for all
possible combinations of the truth
values of the propositional variables
also called logically true. (GIRLS)
❖ Contradiction is a compound
statement that is false for all
possible combinations of the truth
values of the propositional variables
also called logically false or
absurdity. (BOYS)
❖ Contingency is a compound
statement that can be either true
or false, depending on the truth
values of the propositional variables
are neither a tautology nor a
contradiction. (EWAN)
Week 10: Statistical Method and Terms 24, 27, 28, 33, 36, 37, 37, 41, 43, 44
C. Measures of Central Tendency o The mode is 37.
1) Mean for Ungrouped Data 1. Mean for Grouped Data
Steps (Given Data)
i. Find the midpoint for each class. Place them
in a separate column (Midpoint).
ii. Multiply the frequency by the midpoint for
each class. Place them in another column
(f*m).
iii. Find the summation of all the values in f*m
column.
iv. Divide the sum obtained number of
frequencies (n). with formula:
∑𝒇 × 𝒎
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 (𝒙) =
𝒏
Where; Example 1. Eighty randomly selected light bulbs were
𝑁- total number of observations in the tested to determine their lifetimes (in hours). The
population following frequency distribution was obtained.
𝑛 total number of observations in the sample Determine the mean, median and mode.
Class Boundaries Frequency
Example 1. A researcher collects on the ages of 52.5 – 63.5 6
recipients of doctoral degree in business and 63.5 – 74.5 12
engineering and his study yields the following. 74.5 – 85.5 25
Determine the mean of the age recipients. 85.5 – 96.5 18
96.5 – 107.5 14
37 37 24 28 43 44 36 41 33 27
107.5 – 118.5 5
Solution: The mean is determined by the sum of the
ages and then dividing by the total number of Step 1. Find the midpoints of each class and place the
recipients. values in the third column. To find the midpoint, get
the sum of the lower and the upper-class limits and
then divide it by two.
Class Boundaries Frequency Class
Midpoint
52.5 – 63.5 6 58
63.5 – 74.5 12 69
74.5 – 85.5 25 80
85.5 – 96.5 18 91
96.5 – 107.5 14 102
107.5 – 118.5 5 113
Step 2. Next, multiply the midpoints by the frequency
for each class, and place the results in the fourth
column.

2) Median for Ungrouped Data

o The midpoint of the data array. Before finding
this value, the data must be arranged in
order, from least to greatest or vice versa.
o The median will either be specific value or will
fall between two values, (find the mean of the
2 numbers when there is two)
o Given Data
37, 37, 24, 28, 43, 44, 36, 41, 33, 27
o Arranged Data
24, 27, 28, 33, 36, 37, 37, 41, 43, 44
(36+77)/2
Median: 36.5
2) Mode for Ungrouped Data
o it is the value that occurs most often in the
data set. A data can have more than one or
none at all. The mode for grouped data is the
modal class. The modal class is the class with
the largest frequency.
o Given Data
 Class Class Class Class cf
Frequency f • 𝒙𝒎 Frequency f • 𝒙𝒎
Boundaries Midpoint Boundaries Midpoint
52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348 52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348 6
63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828 63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828 18
74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000 74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000 43
85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638 85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638 61
96.5 – 107.5 14 102 1428 96.5 – 107.5 14 102 1428 75
107.5 – 565 107.5 – 565 80
5 113 5 113
118.5 118.5
n=80 ∑ 𝑓 • xm = 6807
Step 2. Divide n = 80 by 2 to get the halfway point
Step 3. Find the sum of Frequency and f • 𝒙𝒎 column. which is 40.
Class Class Step 3. Find the class that contains the 40th value by
Frequency f • 𝒙𝒎
Boundaries Midpoint using the cumulative frequency distribution.
52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348
63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828
74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000
85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638 Step 4. Compute the median using the given formula.
𝑛
96.5 – 107.5 14 102 1428 Median = 𝐿𝑚 + 2
−𝑐𝑓
(𝑤)
107.5 – 565 𝑓
5 113 80
−18
118.5 Median = 74.5 + 2
(11)
25
n=80 ∑ 𝑓 • xm = 6807 Median = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟏𝟖

3. Mode for Grouped Data

Step 4. Divide the sum of the fourth column by “n”. 𝑓1 −𝑓0
∑ 𝑓 • xm Mode = 𝐿𝑚 + ( )×h
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑓1 −𝑓0 )+(𝑓1 −𝑓2)
𝑛 𝑓1 −𝑓0
Mode = 𝐿𝑚 + ( )×h
2𝑓1 −𝑓0 −𝑓2
6807 𝐿𝑚 = lower limit of modal class
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 (𝑥) =
80 h = size of the class interval
𝑓1 = frequency of the modal class
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟎𝟗 𝒉𝒓𝒔 𝑓0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
𝑓2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
2. Median for Grouped Data Example
Steps
Class Class f•
i. Make a table of cumulative frequency. Frequency
Boundaries Midpoint 𝒙𝒎
ii. Divide n to the number of frequencies by 2, to
get the halfway point. 52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348
iii. Locate the median class (using the resulted 63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828
value of n/2) in the cumulative frequency 74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000
column. 85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638
iv. Substitute in the formula, 96.5 – 1428
𝑛
−𝑐𝑓 14 102
Median = 𝐿𝑚 + 2 (𝑤) 107.5
𝑓
Where; 107.5 – 565
5 113
𝐿𝑚 = Lower limit of Median Class 118.5
n = Number of observations n=80 ∑ 𝑓 • xm = 6807
cf= cumulative frequency of class 𝑓1 −𝑓0
preceding the median class Mode = 𝐿𝑚 + ( )×h
(𝑓1 −𝑓0 )+(𝑓1 −𝑓2)
f = frequency of median class Mode = 74.5 + (
25−12
)×11
w (h)= class size 25−12)+(25−18)

Example
Mode = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟓
Step 1: Make a column for Cumulative
Frequency
 Week 11-12: STATISTICAL METHOD AND TERMS 3. Standard Deviation
C. Measures of Central Tendency
D. Measures of Variation
STEPS
A. Find the Measures of Central Tendency
i. Population Mean
ii. Sample Mean
B. Find the Range
1. Range
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2. Variance

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 118 – 53
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 65
Example: Range, Variance, and Standard
Deviation
Class
Class Frequency Mean (m- x̅
Midpoint f • 𝒙𝒎 f*(m- x̅ )2
Boundaries (f) (x̅) )2
(m or 𝒙𝒎)
52.5 – 63.5 6 58 348 85.09 733.86 4403.16
63.5 – 74.5 12 69 828 85.09 258.88 3106.56
74.5 – 85.5 25 80 2000 85.09 25.90 647.50
85.5 – 96.5 18 91 1638 85.09 34.92 628.56
96.5 – 107.5 14 102 1428 85.09 285.94 4003.16
107.5 – 118.5 5 113 565 85.09 778.96 3894.80
n=80 ∑ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑥𝑚 = 6807 ∑ 𝑓 (𝑚 − 𝑥̅ )2 = 16,683.74

Mean
∑ 𝑓•xm
x̅ = 𝑛 Standard Deviation
6807
x̅ = 80 s=√
∑ 𝑓(𝑚−𝒙
̅ )𝟐
𝑛−1
x̅ = 85.09
Variance 16683.74
∑ 𝑓 (𝑚−𝒙
̅ )𝟐
s=√ 80−1
s 2= 𝑛−1 16683.74
s =
2 16683.74 s=√ 79
80−1
s 2=
16683.74 s = 14.53
79
s2= 211.18