NAME: HASSAN HASSAN ISAH

REG NO: ENG/18/CIV/00044

COURSE: CIV 5306 (ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TIMBER STRUCTURE)

DATE: 20TH AUGUST, 2024

1.0 TIMBER AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Timber from well-managed forests is one of the most sustainable resources available and it is

one of the oldest known materials used in construction. It has a very high strength to weight ratio,

is capable of transferring both tension and compression forces, and is naturally suitable as a

flexural member. Timber is a material that is used for a variety of structural forms such as beams,

columns, trusses, girders, and is also used in building systems such as piles, deck members,

railway sleepers and in formwork for concrete. There are number of inherent characteristics that

make timber an ideal construction material. These include its high strength to weight ratio, its

impressive record for durability and performance and good insulating properties against heat and

sound. Timber also benefits from its natural growth characteristics such as grain patterns, colours

and its availability in many species, sizes and shapes that make it a remarkably versatile and an

aesthetically pleasing material. Timber can easily be shaped and connected using nails, screws,

bolts and dowels or adhesively bonded together. The limitations in maximum cross-sectional

dimensions and lengths of solid sawn timbers, due to available log sizes and natural defects, are

overcome by the recent developments in composite and engineered wood products. Finger

jointing and various lamination techniques have enabled timbers (elements and systems) of

uniform and high quality in any shape, form and size to be constructed; being only limited by the

manufacturing and/or transportation boundaries. Timber structures can be highly durable when

properly treated, detailed and built. Examples of this are seen in many historic buildings all
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around the world. Timber structures can easily be reshaped or altered, and if damaged they can

be repaired. Extensive research over the past few decades has resulted in comprehensive

information on material properties of timber and its reconstituted and engineered products and

their effects on structural design and service performance. Centuries of experience of use of

timber in buildings has shown us the safe methods of construction, connection details and design

limitations. This section provides a brief description of the engineering properties of timber that

are of interest to design engineers and architects, and it highlights that, unlike some structural

materials such as steel or concrete, the properties of timber are very sensitive to environmental

conditions; for example, moisture content, which has a direct effect on the strength and stiffness,

swelling or shrinkage of timber. A proper understanding of the physical characteristics of timber

enables the building of safe and durable timber structures.

1.1 THE STRUCTURE OF TIMBER

Summer wood Structural timber is sawn (milled) from the trunk of the tree, which provides

rigidity, mechanical strength and height to maintain the crown. Trunk resists loads due to gravity

and wind acting on the tree and also provides for the transport of water and minerals from the

tree roots to the crown. Roots, by spreading through the soil and acting as a foundation, absorb

moisture-containing minerals from the soil and transfer them via the trunk to the crown. Crown,

comprising branches and twigs to support leaves, provides a catchment area producing chemical

reactions that form sugar and cellulose that cause the growth of the tree. As engineers we are

mainly concerned with the trunk of the tree. A typical cross-section of a tree trunk, shown in

Figure 1.1, illustrates its main features such as bark, the outer part of which is a rather dry and

corky layer and the inner living part. The cambium, a very thin layer of cells underside the inner

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bark, is the growth centre of the tree. New wood cells are formed on the inside of the cambium

(over the old wood) and new bark cells are formed on the outside and as such increasing the

diameter of the trunk. Although tree trunks can grow to a large size, in excess of2mindiameter,

commercially available timbers are more often around 0.5 m in diameter. Wood, in general, is

composed of long thin tubular cells. The cell walls are made up of cellulose and the cells are

bound together by a substance known as lignin. Most cells are oriented in the direction of the

axis of the trunk except for cells known as rays, which run radially across the trunk. The rays

connect various layers from the pith to the bark for storage and transfer of food. Rays are present

in all trees but are more pronounced in some species such as oak. In countries with a temperate

climate, a tree produces a new layer of wood just under the cambium in the early part of every

growing season. This growth ceases at the end of the growing season or during winter months.

This process results in clearly visible concentric rings known as annular rings, annual rings, or

growth rings. In tropical countries, where trees grow throughout the year, a tree produces wood

cells that are essentially uniform. The age of a tree may be determined by counting its growth

rings. The annular band of the cross-section nearest to the bark is called sapwood. The central

core of the wood, which is inside the sapwood, is heartwood. The sapwood is lighter in colour

compared to heartwood and is 25–170 mm wide depending on the species. It contains both living

and dead cells and acts as a medium for transportation of sap from the roots to the leaves,

whereas the heartwood, which consists of inactive cells, functions mainly to give mechanical

support or stiffness to the trunk. As sapwood changes to heartwood, the size, shape and the

number of cells remain unchanged. In general, in hardwoods the difference in moisture content

of sapwood and heartwood depends on the species but in softwoods the moisture content of

sapwood is usually greater than that of heartwood. The strength and weights of the two are

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nearly equal. Sapwood has a lower natural resistance to attacks by fungi and insects and accepts

preservatives more easily than heartwood. In many trees and particularly in temperate climates,

where a definite growing season exists, each annular ring is visibly subdivided into two layers:

an inner layer made up of relatively large hollow cells called springwood or early wood (due to

the fast growth), and an outer layer of thick walls and small cavities called summerwood or

latewood (due to a slower growth). Since summerwood is relatively heavy, the amount of

summerwood in any section is a measure of the density of the wood; see Figure 1.1.

1.3 TYPES OF TIMBER

Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two types: softwoods and hardwoods. This

terminology refers to the botanical origin of timber and has no direct bearing on the actual

softness or hardness of the wood as it is possible to have some physically softer hardwoods like

balsa from South America and wawa from Africa, and some physically hard softwoods like the

pitch pines.

For the engineering purposes, trees are classified according to their mode of growth:

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 i Endogenous trees: These trees grow inwards. In these trees fresh fibrous mass is in the

innermost portion. These trees do not yield good timber for structural works. Example:

Bamboo, cane. This group is confined largely to tropical semitropical regions. Timber

from these trees has very limited engineering applications.

Example of endogenous trees are:

 Palms: because of their long, straight stems are sometimes locally used as piles.

 Bamboo: Is used structurally to a considerable extent.

ii Exogenous trees: These trees increase in bulk growing outer bark and annual rings are

formed in the horizontal section of such a tree. Timber which is mostly used for

engineering purpose belongs to this category. This timber can be divided into Soft woods,

such as deodar; and Hard woods: such as oak and teak.

This terminology refers to the botanical origin of timber and has no direct bearing on the actual

softness or hardness of the wood as it is possible to have some physically softer hardwoods like

balsa from South America and wawa from Africa, and some physically hard softwoods like the

pitch pines.

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1.3.1 Softwoods

Softwoods, characterized by having naked seeds or as cone-bearing trees, are generally

evergreen with needle-like leaves (such as conifers) comprising single cells called tracheids,

which are like straws in plan, and they fulfil the functions of conduction and support. Rays,

present in softwoods, run in a radial direction perpendicular to the growth rings. Their function is

to store food and allow the convection of liquids to where they are needed. Examples of the UK

grown softwoods include spruce (whitewood), larch, Scots pine (redwood) and Douglas fir.

1.3.1.1 Softwood characteristics

 Quick growth rate (trees can be felled after 30 years) resulting in low-density timber with

relatively low strength.

 Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with preservatives.

 Due to the speed of felling they are readily available and comparatively cheaper.

1.3.2 Hardwoods

Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees, which often lose their leaves at the end

of each growing season. The cell structure of hard woods is more complex than that of softwoods

with thick-walled cells, called fibers, providing the structural support and thin-walled cells,

called vessels, providing the medium for food conduction. Due to the necessity to grow new

leaves every year the demand for sap is high and in some instances larger vessels may be formed
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in the springwood, these are referred to as ‘ring-porous’ woods such as in oak and ash. When

there is no definite growing period, the pores tend to be more evenly distributed, resulting in

‘diffuse-porous’ woods such as in poplar and beech. Examples of the UK grown hardwoods

include oak, beech, ash, alder, birch, maple, poplar and willow.

1.3.2.1 Hardwood characteristics

 Hardwoods grow at a slower rate than softwoods, which generally results in a timber of

high density and strength, which takes time to mature, over 100 years in some instances.

 There is less dependence on preservatives for durability qualities.

 Due to the time taken to mature and the transportation costs of hardwoods, as most are

tropical, they tend to be expensive in comparison with softwoods.

Softwoods Hardwoods

Annual rings are distinct, medular rays are not Annual rings are not distinct medular rays are

distinct distinct

Light in colour Dark in colour

Light in weight Heavy in weight

Close grained structure grained structure

Strong in resisting direct tension but weak in Equally strong in resisting tension, compression

resisting compression or shear and shear

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1.4 Applications of Timber in Construction

 Structural members; such as column, beam, floor joist, truss

 Scaffoldings and formworks

 Timber partitions

 Doors & windows

1.5 Properties of Timber

i. Slope of grain

 The grain direction in a timber section is the direction of the main wood cells, fibres and

vessels, in relation to the long axis of the section.

 In the living tree these cells do not always grow perfectly vertical, straight and parallel to

the long axis of the trunk.

 Angle of the grain direction in a cut section of timber is not parallel to the longitudinal

axis. The variation due to poor cutting, but mostly the deviation is due to irregular growth

of the tree.

 In assessing grade, it is the general direction of the grain which must be determined

Properties of Timber be determined.

 The effect of sloping grain has a significant influence on the bending resistance of a

timber section.

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  If the angle of sloping grain (deviation) increases, the strength of the timber section

decreases.

ii. Density

 Density is indicator of the properties of a timber and is a major factor determining its

strength.

 Specific gravity or relative density is a measure of timber's solid substance. It is generally

expressed as the ratio of the oven-dry weight to the weight of an equal volume of water.

 Since water volume varies with the moisture content of the timber, the specific gravity of

timber is expressed at a certain moisture content. Specific gravity of commercial timber

ranges from 0.29 to 0.81.

iii. Moisture Content

 Wood’s reaction to moisture provides more problems than any other factor in its use.

Wood is hygroscopic (wet); that is, it picks up or gives off moisture to equalize with the

relative humidity and temperature in the atmosphere. Properties of Timber.

 As it does so, it changes in strength; bending strength can increase by about 50% in going

from green to moisture content found in wood members in a residential structure.

iv. Strength

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  Timber strength is also affected by moisture content, rate of application and duration of

loading and temperature.

 The dry strength of timber in bending can up to 50% more compared with wet strength.

 The effect on strength in compression can be even greater.

1.6 Characteristics of good timber

 Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining

appearance.

 Colour: A colour should preferably be dark.

 Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc.

 Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi,

insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.

 Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is

removed.

 Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres.

 Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.

 Hardness: A good timber should be hard.

 Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or

abrasion.

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  Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or

seasoning.

 Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed

timber.

 Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck.

 Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member

such as joist, beam, rafter etc.

 Structure: The structure should be uniform.

 Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks

due to vibration.

 Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is

measured by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.

 Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering

effects (dry & wet).

 Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong. 19.Working

conditions: Timber should be easily workable

1.7 Defects in Timber

Defects in timber can affect its strength, appearance, and durability. Defects occurring in timber

are grouped into the following divisions:

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a) Defects due to conversion: During the process of converting timber to commercial form, the

following defects may occur. Examples include Chip mark, diagonal grain, torn grain, wane etc.

b) Defects due to fungi: The attack of timber by fungi when moisture content of timber is above

20% and presence of air and warmth for the growth of fungi the following defects are caused.

Examples of defects due to fungi are: Blue stain, brown rot etc.

c) Defects due to insects: Examples include Beetles, marine borers, termites, white ants etc.

d) Defects due to natural forces: The main natural forces responsible for causing defects in

timber are abnormal growth and rapture of tissues. Examples: burls, callus, chemical stain,

coarse grain, dead wood etc.

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