International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)

Vol. 14, No. 3, September 2023, pp. 1442~1449

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v14.i3.pp1442-1449  1442

Higher order model of synchronous generator

Sugiarto Kadiman, Oni Yuliani

Department Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut Teknologi Nasional Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Synchronous generator conventional model accurately describes only the
stator circuit. Concerning the transients for rotor quantities, for example
Received Dec 10, 2023 rotor voltage, rotor current, and rotor magneto-motor force, conceivable
Revised Mar 3, 2023 predetermined with acceptable accuracy if calculations are created on
Accepted Mar 31, 2023 equivalent model properly on consideration of field and damper together
with stator circuits. Unfortunately, it was recognized that simulated
responses using conventional model with calculated machine parameters
Keywords: often did not match well with actual measured responses, particularly in the
quantity’s rotor winding. For this intention, the newly method to producing
Damper circuit the rotor circuit is to model it as well as the lines that conventionally viewed
Eddy current as the partition of current paths from the physical construction. Besides the
Field circuit physical field and damper circuits, a third circuit for the eddy currents
Rotor quantities induced in the pole surface could also be added. The all conclusions prove
Stator circuit the correctness of synchronous generator model.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Sugiarto Kadiman
Department Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology
Institut Teknologi Nasional Yogyakarta
Babarsari, Caturtunggal, Depok, Sleman, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
Transient synchronous generator models extensively applied in many areas take the part of
important parts as the beginning point of any power system stability studies. Various generator models have
been developed [1]–[4]. For such analysis studies, the models of simple transient states based on the common
method, such as the primary swing stability of electromechanical oscillation of the rotor, is useful but not
suitable to envisage generator performance concerning control experiments; it creates dissimilar results with
the measurements [5]–[8].
The hypothesis that the reciprocated inductances among armature, dampers, and field on direct axis
windings are similar is the basis of conventional stability theory of the generator model. Moreover, both copper
losses and machine slots are ignored and the latitudinal distribution of the stator fluxes and apertures wave are
sinusoidal wave forms. The damper winding that are placed near air-gap present flux linking damper circuits
whose value is nearly equal to flux linking armature. This assumption accelerates satisfactory outcomes for
many stability studies particularly individuals of network side [9]–[15]. Nevertheless, once it tackles to field
current explores, there is a substantial error. Concerning transient condition, the measurements of field current
have exposed greater alternating amplitude [16]. Traditional model of two-axis framework designates only the
armature circuit appropriately. The additional inductance that indicating the disparity between field-damper and
field-armature reciprocated inductances on d axis has to be involved in the model [17]. This inductance 𝑋𝐶
named Canay inductance, takes significant role to the leakage flux 𝛷𝐶 , shown in Figures 1(a) and 1(b) once
Canay inductance is neglected, together base current of field winding and inductance of armature leakage are
regarded free parameters. During assessing an identical circuit model, the residual parameters are attained for

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  1443

the purpose of the model replicates same behaviour from terminal viewpoint. The leakage inductance may
possibly not be equal to the value provided by the real system. One method to creating the rotor circuit is to
model such effect by a low-order ladder circuit of RL branches in order to look like the complex frequency-
dependent nature of the rotor’s surface impedance [18]. Another approach is to model it in conjunction with that
traditionally viewed the partition of current paths from the physical structure [19], [20]. In addition to both
physical field and damper circuits, a third circuit for the eddy currents induced could also be inserted in the pole
surface. These three current paths are in near closeness in the rotor slot.
This study describes the method whereabouts synchronous generator model for stability
investigation constructed on the hypothesis that the mutual inductances among armature, dampers, and field
on direct axis windings are not the same. Procedure for making the proposed equivalent model and how the
advantage of proposed model compare to formerly conventional model are demonstrated. Section 2 tells
research method. Section 3 describes result and analysis. While, the conclusion is described in last section.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Structure of coupling flux components in a rotor slot (a) in theta direction and (b) in radial direction

2. METHOD
In order to compute the machine parameters correspondents to the actual measured responses, the
rotor winding quantities, a better arrangement can be attained with enhancementsts in the structure of the d
axis model. Shielding impacts of the damper currents and eddy currents induced in rotor can influence
transient characteristics significantly. The value of this effect depends on the rotor construction.

2.1. Higher order model of synchronous generator

The traditional synchronous generator model is obtained from the dealings of the joined stator and
rotor electric circuit by converting the variables of generator hooked on dq axes. This converting is used
since the state-space equations depiction is more compact and it enables the analytical method proposed in
this. The d axis is counted to be leading the q axis by 90 degrees and generator agreement is used to
described the voltage equations. The traditional generator model is expressed by the corresponding circuits
shown in Figure 2 with two damper windings both in q axis and in d axis, and counting one field and one
damper windings, and also stator windings described through q0 and d0.

Figure 2. The traditional model of q axis and d axis equivalent circuits

Using relation between magnetic and electric circuits described in [21], [22], each of the flux
components coupling that the current paths may be transformed to a mutual inductance in an equivalent
circuit representative of rotor where the identity of these current paths are preserved. Figure 3 shows an
improved qd circuit model with three q and three d rotor circuits. The inductance, 𝐿′𝑟1𝑐 and 𝐿′𝑟2𝑐 , are the
coupling inductances associated with the flux components in the rotor slot, such as 𝜙𝑟1𝑐 and 𝜙𝑟2𝑐 . The
inductances, 𝐿′𝑙1𝑐 , 𝐿′𝑙2𝑐 , and 𝐿′𝑙3𝑐 , are from the self-leakages of the field, damper, and eddy current.
Those equation aimed at equivalent circuit through three rotor circuits in Figure 3 [23] can be shown
as (1).

Higher order model of synchronous generator (Sugiarto Kadiman)

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𝜓𝑞 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 = 𝑥𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑞
𝜓𝑑 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 = 𝑥𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑑
𝜓0 = 𝑥𝑙𝑠 𝑖0
′ ′ ′ )𝑖 ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑑3 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 = (𝑥3𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑘𝑑3 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑖𝑘𝑑2 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑖𝑓
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ )𝑖 ′
𝜓𝑘𝑑2 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 = 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑖𝑘𝑑3 + (𝑥2𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 )𝑖𝑘𝑑2 + (𝑥𝑟2𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 𝑓
𝜓𝑓′ − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 = 𝑥𝑟2𝑐
′ ′
𝑖𝑘𝑑3 ′
+ (𝑥𝑟1𝑐 ′ )𝑖 ′
+ 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 ′ ′ ′ ′
𝑘𝑑2 + (𝑥1𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 )𝑖𝑓
′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑞3 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 = 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞3 𝑖𝑘𝑞3
′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑞2 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 = 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞2 𝑖𝑘𝑞2
′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑞1 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 = 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞1 𝑖𝑘𝑞1 (1)

The flux linkage equations of the three rotor circuits on the d-axis with mutual coupling can be described
as (2).
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
𝑥𝑘𝑑3 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 𝑥3𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑖𝑘𝑑3
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
[𝑥𝑘𝑑2 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 ] = [ 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑥2𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 ] [𝑖𝑘𝑑2 ] (2)
′
𝑥𝑓 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 ′
𝑥𝑟2𝑐 ′ ′
𝑥𝑟1𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 ′ ′ ′
𝑥1𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 + 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 𝑖𝑓′

𝑋𝑟

Determining parameters of generator model to acceptable the frequency response test data, a correct model is
decided by first selecting the suitable circuit representation. Consequently, to overlook the leakage couplings
of three d axis rotor circuits is not analogous to dumping the off-diagonal term of full X matrix in (2), as
diagonal values from a parameter suitable could be different between without and with off diagonal elements.
′
Using the inverse relation 𝐵 = 𝑋𝑟−1 in [24], 𝑖𝑘𝑞3 ′
, 𝑖𝑘𝑞2 , and 𝑖𝑓′ can be determined from the values of
′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑑3 , 𝜓𝑘𝑑2 , 𝜓𝑓 , and 𝜓𝑚𝑑 .

′ ′
𝑖𝑘𝑑3 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑥𝑘𝑑3 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑
′ ′
[𝑖𝑘𝑑2 ] = [𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 ] [𝑥𝑘𝑑2 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 ] (3)
𝑖𝑓′ 𝑏31 𝑏32 ′
𝑏33 𝑥𝑓 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑

The equation for the stator qd currents and rotor q axis currents can be attained in the same way, namely:

𝑖𝑞 = 𝜓𝑞 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 ⁄𝑥𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜓𝑑 − 𝜓𝑚𝑑 ⁄𝑥𝑙𝑠

′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
𝑖𝑘𝑞3 = (𝜓𝑘𝑞3 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 )⁄𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞3 𝑖𝑘𝑞2 = (𝜓𝑘𝑞2 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 )⁄𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞2 𝑖𝑘𝑞1 = (𝜓𝑘𝑞1 − 𝜓𝑚𝑞 )⁄𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞1 (4)

the flux linkages, 𝜓𝑚𝑑 and 𝜓𝑚𝑞 , can be represented in term of the total flux linkages of the winding, that is:
𝜓𝑑
′
𝜓𝑚𝑑 = 𝑥𝑚𝑑 ( 𝑖𝑑 + 𝑖𝑘𝑑3 ′
+ 𝑖𝑘𝑑2 + 𝑖𝑓′ ) = 𝑥𝑀𝐷 ( + ∑3𝑗=1 𝑏𝑗1 𝑥𝑘𝑑3
′
+ ∑3𝑗=1 𝑏𝑗2 𝑥𝑘𝑑𝑑
′
+ ∑3𝑗=1 𝑏𝑗3 𝜓𝑓′ )
𝑥𝑙𝑠
′ ′ ′
′ ′ ′ 𝜓𝑞 𝜓𝑘𝑞3 𝜓𝑘𝑞2 𝜓𝑘𝑞1
𝜓𝑚𝑞 = 𝑥𝑚𝑞 ( 𝑖𝑞 + 𝑖𝑘𝑞3 + 𝑖𝑘𝑞2 + 𝑖𝑘𝑞2 ) = 𝑥𝑀𝑄 ( + ′ + ′ + ′ ) (5)
𝑥𝑙𝑠 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞3 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞2 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
where = + ∑3𝑖 ∑3𝑗 𝑏𝑖𝑗 + and = + ′ + ′ + ′ + .
𝑥𝑀𝐷 𝑥𝑚𝑑 𝑥𝑙𝑠 𝑥𝑀𝑄 𝑥𝑚𝑞 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞3 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞2 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞1 𝑥𝑙𝑠

The flux linkages of stator and rotor circuit are attained by integrating their individual voltage
equations:

𝜓𝑞 = 𝜔𝑏 ∫{𝑣𝑞 − (𝜔𝑟 ⁄𝜔𝑏 )𝜓𝑑 + (𝑟𝑠 ⁄𝑥𝑙𝑠 )(𝜓𝑚𝑞 − 𝜓𝑞 )}𝑑𝑡

𝜓𝑑 = 𝜔𝑏 ∫{𝑣𝑑 − (𝜔𝑟 ⁄𝜔𝑏 )𝜓𝑞 + (𝑟𝑠 ⁄𝑥𝑙𝑠 )(𝜓𝑚𝑑 − 𝜓𝑑 )}𝑑𝑡
𝜓0 = 𝜔𝑏 ∫{𝑣0 − (𝜔𝑟 ⁄𝜔𝑏 )𝜓0 }𝑑𝑡
′ ′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑞3 = (𝜔𝑏 𝑟𝑙𝑘𝑞3 ⁄𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞3 ) ∫(𝜓𝑚𝑞 − 𝜓𝑘𝑞3 )𝑑𝑡
′ ′ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑞2 = (𝜔𝑏 𝑟𝑙𝑘𝑞2 ⁄𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞2 ) ∫(𝜓𝑚𝑞 − 𝜓𝑘𝑞2 )𝑑𝑡
′ ′ ⁄ ′ ′
𝜓𝑘𝑞1 = (𝜔𝑏 𝑟𝑙𝑘𝑞1 𝑥𝑙𝑘𝑞1 ) ∫(𝜓𝑚𝑞 − 𝜓𝑘𝑞1 )𝑑𝑡
′
𝜓𝑘𝑑3 = −𝜔𝑏 𝑟𝑘𝑑3′ ′
∫{𝑏11 𝜓𝑘𝑑3 ′
+ 𝑏12 𝜓𝑘𝑑3 + 𝑏13 𝜓𝑓′ + (𝑏11 + 𝑏12 + 𝑏13 )𝜓𝑚𝑑 }𝑑𝑡

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  1445

′
𝜓𝑘𝑑2 = −𝜔𝑏 𝑟𝑘𝑑2′ ′
∫{𝑏21 𝜓𝑘𝑑2 ′
+ 𝑏22 𝜓𝑘𝑑2 + 𝑏23 𝜓𝑓′ + (𝑏21 + 𝑏22 + 𝑏23 )𝜓𝑚𝑑 }𝑑𝑡
𝜓𝑓′ = (𝜔𝑏 𝑟𝑓′ ⁄𝜓𝑚𝑑 ) ∫{𝐸𝑓 − 𝑥𝑚𝑑 (𝑏31 𝜓𝑘𝑑3
′ ′
+ 𝑏31 𝜓𝑘𝑑2 + 𝑏33 𝜓𝑓′ − (𝑏31 + 𝑏32 + 𝑏33 )𝜓𝑚𝑑 )}𝑑𝑡 (6)

where 𝐸𝑓 = 𝑥𝑚𝑑 𝑣𝑓′ ⁄𝑟𝑓′ . The rotor speed, 𝜔𝑟 (𝑡), is shaped from expression of slip speed:
𝑡
𝜔𝑟 (𝑡) − 𝜔𝑒 = (𝑃 ⁄2𝐽) ∫0 (𝑇𝑒𝑚 + 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ − 𝑇𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑡 (7)

where the value of 𝑇𝑒𝑚 is negative and it is computed from:

𝑇𝑒𝑚 = (3⁄2)(𝑃 ⁄2𝜔𝑏 )(𝜓𝑑 𝑖𝑞 − 𝜓𝑞 𝑖𝑑 ) (8)

Figure 3. A proposed model with leakage coupling between d-axis circuits [23]

2.2. Synchronous generator simulation in MATLAB/Simulink

A higher order of synchronous generator model is designed exposed in Figure 4, by means of
Simulink components [25]. As shown, the conversion of input stator abc voltages to the rotor qd reference
frame are made within the abc to qd0 block. The block qd gen comprises simulation of generator suitable in
rotor’s reference frame. The stator abc voltages, excitation voltage, and applied mechanical torque on the
rotor are the input of the reference frame. While, the outputs exist terminals of voltage magnitude, current,
active power and reactive power, and also load angle, slip, and accelerating torque.
Figures 5 and 6 describe q axis and d axis circuit parts within the qd gen block that contains three
rotor circuits in every axis. The block of q axis circuit comprises three damper windings. The d axis circuit
encloses one field armature winding and two damper windings. The synchronous generator parameters are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. High order generator parameters [26]

Machine type-1 Machine type-2
Characteristic Characteristic
q axis part d axis part q axis part d axis part
Constant Constant
Frated 60 xmd 1.70 xmq 1.61 Frated 60 xmd 1.70 xmq 1.61
Poles 2 xpr2c 0.06523 xplkq3 0.1225 Poles 2 xpr2c 0.06650 xplkq3 0.1225
Vrated 26e3 xpr1c 0.01925 xplkq2 0.3248 Vrated 26e3 xpr1c 0.0 xplkq2 0.3248
Srated 722e6 xp1c 0.1055 xplkq1 0.6802 Srated 722e6 xp1c 0.12094 xplkq1 0.6802
rs 0.004 xp2c 0.03076 rpkq3 0.2237 rs 0.004 xp2c 0.06563 rpkq3 0.2237
xls 0.19 xp3c -0.009134 rpkq2 0.03537 xls 0.19 xp3c 0.00988 rpkq2 0.03537
xpd 0.346 rpkd3 0.02467 rpkq1 0.005698 xpd 0.346 rpkd3 0.02334 rpkq1 0.005698
xpq 0.642 rpkd2 0.01297 xpq 0.642 rpkd2 0.01848
H 3 1pkd1 0.00112 H 3 1pkd1 0.00109

Higher order model of synchronous generator (Sugiarto Kadiman)

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Figure 4. Simulink diagram of high order synchronous generator model

Figure 5. The inside part of q axis block

Figure 6. The inside part of d axis block

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 14, No. 3, September 2023: 1442-1449
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  1447

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

With the resolve of exploring shielding effects of the damper winding currents and the eddy currents
produced in rotor can impact transient characteristic of the rotor, numeral simulations were conducted for
various different operating conditions, for example step change in mechanical torque and step change in input
voltages. The high order model of synchronous generator is used and the values of field, torque and input
voltage perturbations about operating point of field current are subject to change in p.u. Figures 7(a)-7(c)
show curves of field current for the period of short circuit simulation is at filed, torque and input voltage
perturbations using machine parameters in Table 1. Field current under a three-phase sudden short-circuit is
described by (9) [27].
′ ′ ′
𝑥𝑑 −𝑥𝑑 𝑇𝑘𝑑 𝑇𝑘𝑑
𝑖𝑓 = 𝑖𝑓𝑜 + 𝑖𝑓𝑜 ( ′ ) {𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑇𝑑 − (1 − ) 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑇𝑑 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑇𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑡} (9)
𝑥𝑑 𝑇𝑑′′ 𝑇𝑑′′

Where 𝑖𝑓𝑜 is field current before abrupt short circuit; while 𝑇𝑘𝑑 denotes time constant of d axis damper
circuit, and others are general reactance and time constants expressed by the two-axis theory. The magnitude
of the field current will vary with the existence of perturbations. The emergence of torsional disturbances
causes the value of the field current to decrease. Conversely, a disturbance in the input voltage will increase
the field current. but after the disturbance subsides the field current value returns to its previous value.

𝐼𝑓0 = 1.2586

(a)

𝐼𝑓0 = 1.2586

(b)

𝐼𝑓0 = 1.2586

(c)

Figure 7. Field current curve under three phase short circuit on: (a) field perturbation, (b) torque perturbation,
and (c) input voltage perturbation

Figure 8(a) shows curve of stator input voltage. The form of the signal is a step function with a
magnitude of 1 p.u; in the period between 0.1-2.7 seconds has a magnitude of 0 p.u which is considered as a
disturbance. Figures 8(b) and 8(c) show curves of field current during short circuit simulation under different
two of machine parameters. The use of a larger reactance value in 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 and 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 results in oscillations that
occur in the event of a disturbance.

Higher order model of synchronous generator (Sugiarto Kadiman)

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0.1 − 2.7 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

(a)

𝑋𝑟1𝑐 = 0.01925

(b)

𝑋𝑟1𝑐 = 0.0

(c)

Figure 8. Short circuit simulation of a proposed model with leakage coupling between d-axis circuits
(a) stator input voltage, (b) short circuit response from 2×3 model with non-zero 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 and 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 with machine
type-1, and (c) short circuit response from 2×3 model with non-zero 𝑥𝑟1𝑐 and 𝑥𝑟2𝑐 with machine type-2

4. CONCLUSION
The authors examined synchronous generator dynamics, for example field current characteristics at
transients, three-phase sudden short-circuit in specific. The following goals are described: i) To observe the
field current effect based on the quantity in the three-phase abrupt short-circuit experiment, a model of
synchronous generator concerning field mutual leakage reactance, namely Canay reactance, that relates to
magnetic flux connecting merely on the rotor area should desire be applied; ii) The simulation results display
that the field current in the short circuit assessment will be dissimilar due to occurrence of different types of
perturbations; and iii) Considering dynamic stability, the resulting trends are noticed in filed current
fluctuating frequency for application of high excitation: a. designed for 𝑥𝑟𝑐 > 0, negative damping trend
rises; b. designed for 𝑥𝑟𝑐 ≤ 0, negative damping trend recovers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are very grateful to Rector and also Head of LPPMI, ITNY Yogyakarta through this project
no. 18/ITNY/LPPMI/Pen.int/PD/VI/2022 and the authors are very grateful to the Dean of Industrial Technology
Faculty and the Head of Electrical Engineering Study Program, ITNY Yogyakarta to all facilities provide during
this research. The authors are also very grateful for the suggestions from the reviewers for the quality of the paper.

REFERENCES
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Sugiarto Kadiman holds the Bachelor degree, Master degree, and Doctor degree in
Electrical Engineering from Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in 1989, 2000, and
2014, respectively. Since 2014, he is working as Associate Professor in the Program Study of
Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Institut Teknologi Nasional Yogyakarta,
Indonesia. His research interest is model of power system analysis, modelling and
simulation systems, and artificial intelligent systems. He can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Oni Yuliani received the Bachelor degree in Electrical Engineering from Sriwijaya
University, Palembang, Indonesia, in 1996. She received Master degree in Computer Science
from Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia in 2006. Since 1994, she is working as
Senior Lecturer in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology,
Institut Teknologi Nasional Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Her research interest includes computer
algorithm and program, and probability and stocastic process. She can be contacted at email:
[email protected].

Higher order model of synchronous generator (Sugiarto Kadiman)