International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)

Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2024, pp. 623~630

ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v15.i1.pp623-630  623

Stirling engine multi-objective optimization using a genetic

algorithm

Oumaima Taki, Kaoutar Senhaji Rhazi, Youssef Mejdoub

Laboratory of Networks, Computer Science, Telecommunication and Multimedia (RITM), CED Engineering Sciences,
Higher School of Technology, Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: With the growing demand of energy globally, the actual worrying state of the
earth’s finite resources, namely fossil fuels, opens up the scope of energy
Received Apr 27, 2023 researches to innovative and efficient solutions. Stirling engine has been an
Revised Jul 3, 2023 interesting subject of study since its invention, and many studies dealt with
Accepted Jul 20, 2023 Stirling engine efficiency with attempts to optimize it in order to have a proper
use of the engine in the real world, depending on the use cases. Stirling engine
is an external combustion engine with a theoretical efficiency equivalent to
Keywords: that of Carnot. Alongside the global awareness to use efficient and less
resource consuming solutions, there has been a spiking growth in the set of
Artificial intelligence tools that are conceived to achieve that; specifically in the machine learning
External combustion area. Among the various available algorithms, the one used in the hereby study
Genetic algorithms is the non-sorted genetic algorithm II, which falls into the genetic algorithms
Heating category. This algorithm is well suited for multi-objective optimization
Machine learning problems; it consists of selecting the best design parameters that are contained
Stirling engine in predefined upper and lower bounds, based on multiple objective functions.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Oumaima Taki
Laboratory of Networks, Computer Science, Telecommunication and Multimedia (RITM)
CED Engineering Sciences, Higher School of Technology
Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
Stirling engine is an external combustion piston engine that transforms thermal energy into kinetic
energy by heating and cooling the compressible fluid contained in the cylinders. The thermal efficiency of its
cycle can reach that of a Carnot cycle, and that is the highest reachable efficiency theoretically [1]. It was first
invented by Robert Stirling in 1816, and continued to investigate on its invention until 1850 s when he built
double and triple cylinders engines [2]. Nonetheless, those new engines were less performant than the first one.
Many researchers continued to prosecute their researches on the Stirling engine; In 1860 with Lehman building
a hot air expansion engine with a horizontal single cylinder [3]. In 1876, Alexander Rider built another hot air
engine but with two cylinders put side by side and externally connected by a regenerator, without the need of
valves, springs, levers or any delicate part [4].
The published results of the Philips Stirling Engines in 1947 were a significant improvement, they
were 50 times lighter and 125 times smaller compared to the first engines [5]. A Stirling engine operates on a
closed and regenerative thermodynamic cycle, with cycle compression and expansion of the compressible
working fluid inside the cylinders, at different temperature levels [6], and thanks to its non-explosive
combustion, a Stirling engine can achieve remarkable quietness.

Journal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescore.com

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The practical cycle is different from the theoretical Carnot one that consists of two constant
temperatures and two constant volume processes, and it can be defined as a process that occurs in a closed
space containing a working compressible fluid. The difference in volume inside the closed space generates in
which changes cyclical changes in pressure of the fluid whereas the displacement in the closed space generates
changes in cyclic temperatures of the fluid [7].
Schmidt was the first to thermodynamically model a Stirling cycle and he did an assumption that the
working fluids in the cold and hot spaces have similar temperature of the cold and hot sources [8], and he then
developed an isothermal model, which was based on the expansion and compression of an ideal gas, and that
was used by others to develop Stirling engines. Urieli and Berchowitz used this work to develop an adiabatic
model which divides the Stirling engine into five control volumes and assuming that the total mass of the
working gas remains the same inside the engine so as to obtain an efficient heat transfer [9].

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
The adiabatic model of Urieli and Berchowitz is used in this work to apply a multi-objective
optimization. The engine is divided into five components connected in series as shown in Figure 1. The
following assumptions were taken into account: i) Compression and expansion are adiabatic; ii) Uniform gas
pressure inside the engine; iii) Sinusoidal movement of the piston and the displacer; iv) The used working fluid
is an ideal gas; and v) Steady state, rotation speed is constant. The terms cited in this paper are presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. Definition of terms

Symbol Definition Symbol Definition
T_H hottemperature Η efficiency
T_C coldtemperature ε_H heatexchangerefficiency
W Work ε_R regeneratorefficiency
Q heat ε_L coldexchangerefficiency
Q_H releasednetheat t_cycle cyclictimeperiod
volumesratioduring
Q_L absorbednetheat λ
processes
proportionalityconstantof
Q_0 lostheatduethermalbridging M
StirlingEngine
C_H hotsourcecapacitance K_0 heatleakcoefficient
C_L heatsinkcapacitance δ Stefan^' sconstant
C heatcapacitancerate h Heatcapacitancecoefficient

2.1. Work done during the cycle

The ideal gas law is formulated as (1).

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (1)

Considering the PV diagram of the Stirling cycle as graphed in Figure 2, we observe that during the
compression process 4-1, the gas is cooled to maintain the constant cold temperature 𝑇𝐶 . The required work
𝑊4−1 to compress the gas inside the cylinder as (2).

1 1 𝑉
𝑊4−1 = ∫4 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 ∫4 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑙𝑛⁡ ( 1) (2)
𝑉4

Using the general gas in (1).

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝐶 (3)

In the isothermal expansion process 2-3, the heat source maintains the working fluid’s temperature
constant at 𝑇𝐻 . The work of this process is formulated as (4),
3 3
𝑊2−3 = ∫2 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 ∫2 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑙𝑛 (4)

and similar to the previous process.

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑛 ∙ 𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝐻 (5)

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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694  625

In the processes 1-2 and 3-4, the volume is constant, the fluid is displaced from the cold space to the hot space,
no work is done. We can then conclude that the network is expressed as the sum of work from process 4-1 and
process 2-3:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊4−1 + 𝑊2−3 (6)

Figure 1. The adiabatic model [10] Figure 2. The stirling engine cycle [11]

2.2. Heat transferred during the cycle

According to the first law analysis of the ideal gas, the transferred heat is calculated by developing
the equations to determine the internal energy change ∆𝑢 in terms of the specific heat capacity [12]. The heat
transferred from the gas, 𝑄𝑅 , during the “cooling” process 3-4 in which the work is null, can be formulated as (7).

𝑄𝑅 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚. 𝐶𝑉 . ∆𝑇 (7)

During the compression and expansion processes, the temperature is constant [11] and thus, according
to (7) the transferred heat is equal to the work. We have:

𝑉
−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄4−1 = 𝑊4−1 = 𝑚. 𝑅. 𝑇𝐶 . 𝑙𝑛 ( 1) (8)
𝑉4

𝑉
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄2−3 = 𝑊2−3 = 𝑚. 𝑅. 𝑇𝐻 . 𝑙𝑛 ( 3) (9)
𝑉2

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊4−1 + 𝑊2−3 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (10)

The theoretical efficiency is then:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝐶
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1− =1− (11)
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐻

If we want to calculate to practical efficiency, we have to take in consideration the regenerator efficiency 𝜀𝑅 .
Let’s reformulate the absorbed and the released working fluid heats:

𝑄ℎ = 𝑛𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑙𝑛(𝜆) + 𝑛𝐶𝑉 (1 − 𝜀𝑅 )(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) (12)

𝑄𝑐 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑙𝑛(𝜆) + 𝑛𝐶𝑉 (1 − 𝜀𝑅 )(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) (13)

Where 𝑛 the number of the fluid’s moles, 𝑅 the gas constant and 𝜆 the ratio of the volumes.
In the transfer of heat from the heat source to the sink is lost due to thermal bridging. It is calculated
by (14) [12]:
𝐾0
𝑄0 = [(2 − 𝜀𝐻 )𝑇𝐻1 − (2 − 𝜀𝐿 )𝑇𝐿1 + (𝜀𝐻 𝑇ℎ − 𝜀𝐿 𝑇𝐶 )]𝑡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 (14)
2

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626  ISSN: 2088-8694

Now with the consideration of the thermal bridging losses, we can put the released net heat (𝑄𝐻 ) and the
absorbed net heat (𝑄𝐿 as (15) and (16):

𝑄𝐻 = 𝑄0 + 𝑄ℎ (15)

𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄0 + 𝑄𝑐 (16)

The cyclic time period can be formulated as (17) [12]:

𝑛𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑙𝑛(𝜆)+𝑛𝐶𝑣 (1−𝜖𝑅 )(𝑇ℎ −𝑇𝑐 ) 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑙𝑛(𝜆)+𝑛𝐶𝑣 (1−𝜖𝑅 )(𝑇ℎ −𝑇𝑐 ) 1 1

𝑡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 4 −𝑇 4 ) + +( + ) (𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) (17)
𝐶𝐻 𝜀𝐻 (𝑇𝐻1 −𝑇ℎ )+𝜉𝐶𝐻 𝜀𝐻 (𝑇𝐻 ℎ
𝐶𝐿 𝜀𝐿 (𝑇𝑐 −𝑇𝐿1 ) 𝑀1 𝑀2
1

We can then express the output power using the cyclic time period:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑄𝐻 −𝑄𝐿
𝑃= = (18)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

3. MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION
3.1. Genetic algorithms
Genetic algorithms are optimization algorithms that simulate the natural selection and evolution of
species populations. They were introduced by John Holland in the early 1970’s [13]. A genetic algorithm (GA)
usually consists of two processes; we first choose individuals to compose our population, based on their
contribution in our objective function, then we mix and match individuals through crossover and mutation of
genes in order to generate an offspring that will represent the next generation. These two processes are then
looped, until satisfaction of a predefined threshold, to get an optimal solution.

3.2. Non-sorted genetic algorithm

A problem that has multiple objectives does not have a single optimal solution, but rather a set of
optimal solutions known as Pareto frontier [14]. One approach to deal with multiple objectives problem is to
convert it to a single objective problem by using the weighting sum method for instance [15]. The reason of
using a genetic algorithm to solve a multi-objective problem is that GAs use a population of solution, that
evolves throughout processes, that contains multiple sets of optimal solutions of the objective functions. The
first version of NSGA first appeared in 1995 [15], and was improved to a better version in 2002 [16] that is
now commonly used. Let us first define what is meant by non-domination.
Suppose we have two objective functions 𝑋 and 𝑌 that we would want to minimize and 𝐴(𝑥1, 𝑦1),
𝐵(𝑥2, 𝑦2) two solutions:

𝐴𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝐵 ⇔ (𝑥1 ≤ 𝑥2 ∧ 𝑦1 ≤ 𝑦2) ∧ (𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ∨ 𝑦1 < 𝑦2) (19)

as we will see next, the solutions are sorted by their non-dominance; from the non-dominated ones to the most
dominated (Figure 3).
The main loop of the algorithm is as follows:
- We choose randomly a starting population 𝑃0 , and with a tournament selection [17] the parents of the next
generation are chosen.
- We apply a crossover between the chromosomes of the parents to generate an offspring 𝑄0 . In addition to
crossover, a mutation occurs randomly to chromosomes, with a rate of 10% generally, then we obtain a
new population with double size of the first one 𝑅0 = 𝑃0 ∪ 𝑄0 .
- A non-dominated sorting is then applied to 𝑅0 to have the population sorted by frontiers.
- Let Fj the frontier such as |0|⁡|𝑗 − 1𝐹𝑖 | < |𝑃0 | and |0|⁡|𝑗𝐹𝑖 | ≥ |𝑃0 |. If there is equality of the cardinals, we
put 0𝑗𝐹𝑖 = 𝑃1 , and repeat from step 1 until we reach a predefined threshold N of maximum populations.
- If we are in the strict inequality of the cardinals’ case: |0|⁡|𝑗𝐹𝑖 | > |𝑃0 |, we apply a crowding distance sorting
is applied to the Fj frontier to retrieve only solutions that would fit to the new population. Then we restart
from step 1 until threshold is satisfied.
The Pareto frontier, also known as Pareto set or Pareto front, is a crucial concept in multi-objective
optimization. It refers to the optimal set of solutions where the improvement of one objective comes at the cost
of another. Vilfredo Pareto first observed this phenomenon in his work on economics [18]. Today, the Pareto
frontier is widely used in various fields such as engineering and economics. It helps to identify the best possible
options for a system or process and can be visualized as a curve in a two-dimensional space or higher

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dimensions [19]. To find the Pareto frontier, researchers use a variety of methods such as genetic algorithms,
simulated annealing, and linear programming. It provides a useful tool for decision-making, and the Pareto
frontier can be used to optimize multiple objectives simultaneously [20].

Figure. 1. NSGA-II algorithm from step t to step t+1 [14]

3.3. Previous uses of genetic algorithms in Stirling engine optimization

Genetic algorithms (GAs) have been increasingly applied to optimize Stirling engines due to their
flexibility and robustness. The Stirling engine, named after Robert Stirling, is a type of external combustion
engine that uses a cyclic compression and expansion of a working fluid, typically air or helium, at different
temperature levels. The engine's efficiency depends on several factors such as the heat exchanger geometry,
regenerator design, and engine parameters. GAs provide a powerful optimization technique to optimize these
factors and achieve maximum performance.
Researchers have utilized GAs in different aspects of Stirling engines. A study by Suleiman et al. [21]
optimized the heat exchanger geometry of a Stirling engine using GAs to maximize the engine's thermal
efficiency. Similarly, Sheykhi and Mehregan [22] employed GAs to optimize the regenerator of a Stirling
engine to improve its performance. The regenerator is a critical component in the engine that recovers the heat
from the hot working fluid and transfers it to the cold working fluid, improving the engine's efficiency. The
regenerator's design, such as the matrix material, matrix thickness, and channel size, affects the engine's
performance significantly.
GAs can also be used to determine the optimal engine parameters, including the displacer's amplitude,
frequency, and phase angle. Rahmati et al. [23] used GAs to optimize the engine's parameters, which resulted
in a significant improvement in the engine's performance. Another study Abuelyamen and Ben-Mansour [24]
applied GAs to optimize the geometry of the regenerator and engine's parameters simultaneously, resulting in
a better performance. Overall, GAs have proved to be a reliable optimization tool for Stirling engines, providing
valuable insights into the engine's design and operation. In addition, GAs can handle the nonlinear and complex
optimization problems that arise in Stirling engines, making them a powerful tool for researchers in this field.

3.4. The algorithm application

The gamma Stirling engine was chosen for our study due to its high efficiency, reliability, low
maintenance requirements, high power-to-weight ratio, and adaptability to different fuel sources. Previous
studies have shown that the gamma configuration results in higher thermal efficiency and power output
compared to other configurations [25]. Additionally, gamma Stirling engines have been found to have the highest
thermal efficiency and lowest specific fuel consumption compared to other types of Stirling engines [26].
In this study, the multi-objectives problem we are trying to solve is to maximize two objective
functions: output power and thermal efficiency. The design parameters that we would optimize are as follows,
and they are limited by lower and upper bounds [12]:

0.4 ≤ 𝜀𝑅 ≤ 0.9 (20)

0.4 ≤ 𝜀𝐻 ≤ 0.8 (21)

0.4 ≤ 𝜀𝐿 ≤ 0.9 (22)

300 ≤ 𝐶𝐻 ≤ 1800 (23)

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300 ≤ 𝐶𝐿 ≤ 1800 (24)

800 ≤ 𝑇ℎ ≤ 1000 (25)

400 ≤ 𝑇𝐶 ≤ 510 (26)

The remaining constant parameters are found in Table 2.

Table 2. Constant parameters of the Stirling engine

Parameter Value
𝐶𝑣 (𝐽. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 . 𝐾 −1 ) 15
𝜉 2 × 10−10
𝐶(𝑊. 𝐾 −1 ) 1300
𝑅(𝐽. 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 . 𝐾 −1 ) 4.3
𝜀 0.9
𝑇𝐻1 (𝐾) 1300
𝜆 2
𝐾0 (𝑊. 𝐾 −1 ) 2.5
𝑇𝐿1 (𝐾) 290
𝑛 1
𝑇0 (𝐾) 288
𝛿(𝑊. 𝑚−2 . 𝐾 −4 ) 5.67 × 10−8
ℎ(𝑊. 𝑚−2 . 𝐾 −1 ) 20
1 1
+ (𝑠. 𝐾 −1 ) 2 × 10−5
𝑀1 𝑀2

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this study we used an initial population size of 1000 and maximum number of generations of 100.
We obtain, in an average of 31 seconds over 50 attempts, a curve (Figure. 4) representing the Pareto frontier
of a simultaneous optimization of the output power and the thermal efficiency. We notice that the curve does
not a have a clean logarithmic shape; it contains a considerable amount of noise.

Figure 4. Gamma Stirling configuration [21]

Figure 5. Pareto frontier of the optimized design patterns

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After many attempts, we have found that after setting all design patterns to constant values, keeping
only the temperature variants, we can obtain a fitter curve with less noise (Figure. 5). We then decided to let
only the temperature and the capacitance of the cold sink as variable design parameters. As a result, we obtain
a linear curve, which is not representative of our multi-optimization problem, and we cannot choose a pareto
frontier (Figure 6 and Figure 7).

Figure 6. Pareto frontier with less design Figure 7. Simplified problem with two design
parameters parameters

5. CONCLUSION
In this study, we were faced to a multi-optimization problem; optimizing the output power and the
thermal efficiency of the Stirling engine. We chose as design parameters the effectiveness of the regenerator
and the exchangers, the heat capacitances of the heat source and heat sink and the low and high temperature of
the working fluid. From a toolkit of available algorithms to solve such problems, we chose the NSGA-II
algorithm, that we have found suitable for our case. We also concluded that if we keep only the temperature of
the working fluid variable, the Pareto frontier tends to have a fit logarithmic curve shape. As it was debated in
its apparition the work of Amrit Pratap et al., it is definitively a fast and elitist genetic algorithm. We got an
optimal thermal efficiency between 37% and 74%, and an optimal output power between 1200 W and
11300 W. These are the ranges where the optimal realistic solutions are located, we must apply a decision-
making algorithm in a future work to locate them. The remaining design parameters can be looked in detail at
as well in other studies, in order to achieve a more global optimization of the engine, such as the nature of the
working fluid, the angle of the crank wheel, and the rotational speed.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Oumaima Taki is an electrical engineer who was born in 1995 in Morocco. She
graduated from the National School of Arts and Crafts (ENSAM) Casablanca in 2018. She is
currently pursuing her Ph.D. in the Electrical Engineering Department at the Superior School
of Technology (EST) Casablanca, where she is focused on researching 'Stirling engine' and
'engine optimization'. She can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Kaoutar Senhaji Rhazi qualified professor in Electrical Engineering; at the

School of Technology in Cacablanca. Morocco. A graduate engineer in electrical engineering
from the Mohammadia School of Engineers (EMI) in Rabat. Morocco (in 1991). Had the
research preparation certificate (CPR) in telecommunications Ph.D. in July 2006 (in
electromagnetic compatibility). Passed academic qualification in the same field in 2014.
Became higher education teacher in 2020. Current research interests are: ‘power electronics’
and 'electromagnetic compatibility'. She can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Youssef Mejdoub was born in Morocco, in 1980. He received his Ph.D. Thesis
on Modeling of Multiconductor Transmission Lines, in 2014 from Cadi Ayyad University,
Marrakech Morocco. Since 2016, he has been a Professor at the Superior school of technology
(EST), University of Hassan II of Casablanca. He currently works at the Electrical Engineering
Department, Superior school of technology. His current research interests are 'antennas’,
'electromagnetic compatibility' and 'MTL lines'. He can be contacted at email:
[email protected] or [email protected].

Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 2024: 623-630