Ace Your Learning: Top Revision Techniques

Learning can feel stressful, but with the right approach, you can revise effectively and
feel confident. Here are some top techniques to supercharge your revision sessions:

1. Make it Stick: Active Learning is Key!

● Ditch the passive reading: Don't just highlight your notes! Actively engage with
the material. Summarise key points in your own words, draw diagrams, or create
flashcards.
● Explain it like I'm five: Imagine you're explaining a concept to someone younger.
Teaching someone else is a great way to solidify your own understanding. Here's
a fun video on the " Feynman Technique":

2. Visualise Your Success:

● Mind maps: Create mind maps to organise your thoughts and see connections
between topics. Use visuals, colours, and keywords to make information more
memorable.
● Practice papers: Put yourself under exam-like conditions by doing past papers or
practice questions. This helps you get used to the format and time pressure of
the real exam.

3. Make it Fun and Interactive!

● Gamify your revision: Turn revision into a game! Use flashcards apps, online
quizzes, or create revision games with friends.
 ● Change your study space: Don't get stuck at your desk all the time. Move to a
different location like the library or a quiet corner in your garden for a change

of scenery.

4. Take Care of Yourself:

● Healthy body, healthy mind: Eat nutritious foods, get enough sleep, and exercise
regularly. Taking care of yourself will boost your focus and concentration during
revision.
● Don't forget breaks!: Schedule short breaks into your revision sessions to avoid
burnout. Get up, move around, grab a healthy snack, or do some deep breathing
exercises.

Bonus Tip!

● Reward yourself: Set small goals and reward yourself for achieving them. This
will keep you motivated and on track.
Remember, the best revision technique is the one that works for YOU. Experiment with
different methods and find what helps you learn and retain information most
effectively. Good luck!

When we come back from the summer break you will do a baseline test. This will check
your learning using the notes shared on the next pages. Use the tips shared above to
help you study and prepare for it. The test will be a part of your report grade so please
try your best.

Good luck!
Biology
B1 characteristics and classification of living organisms

Living things: All living things carry out 7 life processes.

Movement This is the ability of an organism, or a part of it, to change its position
in space. While some living things, like animals, exhibit obvious
locomotion (think cheetahs sprinting or birds soaring), even plants
display movement. A sunflower slowly turns its face throughout the
day to maximise sunlight absorption, and roots grow in specific
directions seeking water and nutrients.

Respiration This vital process fuels the organism's activities. It occurs at the
cellular level, within structures called mitochondria. Here, glucose, a
simple sugar derived from food, undergoes a series of chemical
reactions combining with oxygen. This process releases energy that
the organism utilises for various functions, like growth, movement,
and maintenance of internal processes.

Sensitivity Living things are not passive observers of their surroundings. They
possess the remarkable ability to detect and respond to changes in
their internal and external environment. This sensitivity allows
organisms to react to stimuli like light, temperature, touch, or
presence of food or danger. Plants, for instance, will bend towards
light sources, and animals will adjust their behaviour to avoid
predators.

Growth This is a defining characteristic of living organisms. It refers to a

permanent increase in size and dry mass (excluding water content).
Growth can be uniform, where all parts of the organism increase
proportionately, or non-uniform, where specific parts grow faster than
others. This process is fueled by the nutrients obtained through
nutrition.

Reproduction This is the cornerstone of the continuation of life. It allows organisms

to create new individuals of the same species, ensuring their survival
beyond their individual lifespan. Reproduction can be achieved
through two main methods: sexual reproduction, involving the fusion
of genetic material from two parents, and asexual reproduction,
where a single parent produces offspring genetically identical to itself.

Excretion Metabolic processes within living organisms generate waste products

that can be harmful if allowed to accumulate. Excretion is the vital
process of eliminating these waste products. Examples include
carbon dioxide, a byproduct of respiration, released through
breathing in animals and through tiny pores in plants. Animals also
have specialised organs like kidneys to remove nitrogenous waste
like urea.

Nutrition All living things require a constant supply of nutrients for energy,
growth, and development. Plants, known as autotrophs, can
manufacture their own food through photosynthesis, utilising sunlight,
water, and carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, rely on
external sources of organic matter for their nutritional needs. Animals
obtain nutrients by consuming plants or other animals, while fungi
and some bacteria break down dead or decaying organic matter.
Common Misconceptions

Here are some common misconceptions based on the 7 life processes of living
things:

Movement
All living things move visibly: Plants can be mistakenly
excluded because their movement might be slow or
subtle, like root growth or a sunflower turning its head.

Respiration
Respiration is the same as breathing: Respiration is
the cellular process, while breathing is the mechanical
process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide
(in animals) or gas exchange (in plants).

Sensitivity
Sensitivity requires complex nervous systems: Even
simple organisms like bacteria can exhibit sensitivity to
stimuli like light or chemicals.

Growth
Growth only means increasing in height or length:
Growth can also be about increasing in mass or
complexity, like the development of organs or tissues.

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is "lesser" than sexual
reproduction: Both methods are successful strategies
for continuing a species, each with its own advantages
and disadvantages.

Excretion
Waste products are useless: Some waste products
from one organism can be nutrients for another, creating
a recycling loop in ecosystems.
Nutrition
Plants don't need nutrients: Plants require nutrients for
growth and development, and while they can make their
own food, they still need minerals from the soil.

B2 Organisation of the organism

Cells: Cells are the fundamental unit of life and come in many shapes and sizes,
each carrying out specific functions essential for living organisms. Here's a
breakdown of the key classification systems of cells.

1. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells:

● Prokaryotic Cells: These are simpler cells, lacking a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. They are characteristic of bacteria and archaea.
Key features include:
o Circular DNA located in the cytoplasm (nucleoid region).
o Ribosomes for protein synthesis.
o Cell wall for protection and support.
o May have a capsule for additional protection and adhesion.
o Some prokaryotes have flagella for movement and pili for conjugation
(exchange of genetic material).
Labelled Diagram of Prokaryotic Cell

● Eukaryotic Cells: These are more complex cells with a well-defined nucleus
enclosed by a nuclear membrane. They also have a variety of
membrane-bound organelles that perform specialised functions. Eukaryotic
cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Key features include:
o Nucleus containing genetic material (DNA) organised into
chromosomes.
o Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth) for protein synthesis, lipid
synthesis, and detoxification.
o Golgi apparatus for packaging and modifying macromolecules.
o Lysosomes for cellular digestion and waste disposal.
o Mitochondria for cellular respiration (energy production).
o Ribosomes for protein synthesis (similar to prokaryotes).
o Cytoskeleton for maintaining cell shape and facilitating movement.
o Many eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall in addition to the plasma
membrane. Plants have a cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi have
cell wall made of chitin.

Labelled Diagram of Eukaryotic Cell

Cells into organisms

Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism

Organisms can be simple or complex.

2. Unicellular vs. Multicellular Organisms:

● Unicellular Organisms: The entire organism is one cell. This single cell
performs all vital functions for survival and reproduction. Examples include
amoeba, paramecium, and yeast.
● Multicellular Organisms: These organisms are composed of billions of many
different types of cells that are organised into tissues, organs, and organ
systems. Each cell type is specialised for a particular function, and they work
together to maintain the organism's overall health. Examples include humans,
animals, and plants.

3. Cell Specialisation:

In multicellular organisms, cells differentiate into various types with specific

structures and functions suited to their roles. All cells start off as stem cells, which
are undifferentiated cells at the start of an organism’s development, at the
embryonic stage. Stem cells divide by mitosis (simple cell division) to proliferate.
Stems cells begin differentiating and becoming specialised cells, that carry out
specific functions. Here are some key examples of specialised cells:

● Epithelial Cells: Cover surfaces and line organs, providing protection,

secretion, and absorption.
● Connective Tissue Cells: Provide support, structure, and connect tissues
together. Examples include bone cells, cartilage cells, and blood cells.
● Muscle Cells: Specialized for contraction and movement. Examples include
skeletal muscle cells, smooth muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells.
● Nerve Cells: Transmit nerve impulses throughout the body, enabling
communication and coordination.
● Plant Cells: In addition to the organelles common in animal cells, plant cells
have a cell wall made of cellulose, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and a
large central vacuole for storage.
Labelled Diagram of Animal Cell

Labelled Diagram of Plant Cell

Here are some common misconceptions based on the information about the
organisation of organisms:

Cells:

● All cells are microscopic: While most cells are indeed microscopic, some, like
ostrich eggs, can be quite large.
● Cells are simple blobs: Even single-celled organisms exhibit complex internal
organisation.

Cells into Organisms:

● Organisms become more complex simply by having more cells: Complexity

arises not just from cell number, but also from the way cells are organised and
specialised.

Cell Specialisation:

● Cells can't change their type: While most cells become specialised during
development, some adult organisms retain stem cells that can differentiate into
different cell types under specific conditions (think skin repair).
● Muscle cells are the only ones that can contract: Many other cell types, like some
amoeba species, can also contract for movement or other functions.
● Plant cells are fundamentally different from animal cells: While they have some
unique features like cell walls and chloroplasts, they share many core organelles and
cellular processes with animal cells.
TASK: Check your understanding.
1. Apply: If a plant is deprived of sunlight, which life process will likely be most
affected?

2. A single-celled organism like an amoeba can carry out all its life processes.
What best describes this type of organism?

(a) Multicellular with specialised cells

(b) Unicellular with all functions in one cell
(c) Prokaryotic with a true nucleus
(d) Eukaryotic with membrane-bound organelles

3. Apply: Which organism is more complex, human or plant. Give suggestions of

how you can tell?

4. Which of the following is a characteristic of a prokaryotic cell but NOT a

eukaryotic cell?

(a) Cell wall

(b) Ribosomes
(c) Membrane-bound organelles
(d) DNA
5. In multicellular organisms, cells differentiate into specialised types. What is
the starting point for these specialised cells?

(a) Directly from DNA instructions

(b) Mature, complex cells
(c) Undifferentiated stem cells
(d) Specific organ structures

6. Apply: Adult stem cells are found in the bone marrow of humans, why is it
important for an organism to have stem cells? Stem cell therapy is a new field in
medical research, the best stem cells are harvested from a developing embryo whilst
it’s still in the womb, state TWO disadvantages of this and explain why this is
considered unethical?

7. Which of the following organelles is responsible for capturing light energy

in plants for photosynthesis?

(a) Ribosomes
(b) Mitochondria
(c) Chloroplasts
(d) Lysosomes
8. Apply: If a plant is grown in complete darkness, would you expect its chloroplasts
to be well-developed? Explain why the roots of plants are not green?

9. Tissues are groups of cells working together for a specific function. What is
the next level of organisation after tissues?

(a) Unicellular organism

(b) Organelle
(c) Organ
(d) Cell wall
B3 Movement of substances in and out of cells

The Cell Membrane: A Selective Gatekeeper

The cell membrane, which is a phospholipid bilayer, acts as a barrier that controls
the movement of substances into and out of the cell. It is selectively permeable,
meaning it allows some molecules to pass through freely while restricting others. The
phospholipid bilayer is essentially a double layer of fat molecules with hydrophilic
heads (water-loving) facing outwards and hydrophobic tails (water-fearing) facing
inwards. This structure allows the membrane to interact with both the watery
environment inside and outside the cell while providing a barrier to most solutes.

Passive Transport: Down the Concentration Gradient

Passive transport does not require any energy input from the cell. They rely on the
natural tendency of molecules to move from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration, reaching a state of equilibrium. Here are the main types of
passive transport:

● Diffusion: Small, non-polar molecules (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide) can move
directly through the phospholipid bilayer down their concentration gradient.
● Osmosis: The movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable
membrane from an area of low solute concentration (high water potential) to
an area of high solute concentration (low water potential). This is important for
maintaining cell turgor (pressure) and preventing cells from bursting or
shrinking excessively.

Active Transport: Pumping Against the Gradient

Active transport requires energy input from the cell in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) to move substances across the cell membrane against their
concentration gradient. Here's a key type of active transport:

● Active Transport Pump: Integral membrane proteins act as pumps, using ATP
energy to move molecules across the membrane from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration. Examples include the
sodium-potassium pump, which maintains the balance of these ions across
the cell membrane.

Sites of diffusion in animals and plants

Animals: Respiratory system: gas exchange

Digestive system: absorption of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, Vit & Minerals) at
the villi in the small intestine

Plants: gas exchange in the palisade mesophyll

Osmosis: in root hair cells and transpiration (evaporation of water) from the leaves
These sites of diffusions are usually adapted for efficient diffusion of substances.

● Thin membranes – for shorter diffusion distance and easier & faster rate of
diffusion
● Large surface area – greater number of substances move per unit time
● (for animals) Dense network of capillaries – constant blood flow to maintain
a steep concentration gradient

Investigating movement of substances in and out of cells

Concentration Gradients and Solutions

In cells, solutions (often referred to as cytoplasm within cells and extracellular fluid
surrounding cells) can be classified based on their relative concentrations of solutes
(dissolved particles) compared to another solution, typically the cell cytoplasm. This
concentration difference is referred to as a concentration gradient.

There are three main categories used to describe the relative concentrations of
solutions:

● Hypertonic Solution: A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of

solutes compared to another solution (usually the cell cytoplasm). When a cell
is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will tend to move out of the cell by
osmosis (through a partially permeable membrane) to equalise the
concentration gradient. This can cause the cell to shrink (crenation) if it loses
too much water.
● Isotonic Solution: An isotonic solution has the same concentration of solutes
compared to another solution (usually the cell cytoplasm). When a cell is
placed in an isotonic solution, there is no net movement of water into or out of
the cell due to osmosis. The cell maintains its original size and shape.
 ● Hypotonic Solution: A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes
compared to another solution (usually the cell cytoplasm). When a cell is
placed in a hypotonic solution, water will tend to move into the cell by osmosis
to equalise the concentration gradient. This can cause the cell to swell (lyse) if
it gains too much water.

Osmosis and Cell Size

The movement of water into or out of cells due to concentration gradients is referred
to as osmosis. Osmosis is important for many cellular processes, including
maintaining cell size and shape, regulating the transport of molecules across cell
membranes, and facilitating cell signalling.

How are organisms organised?

When a group of cells work together to do the same function, they form a tissue.
When a group of different tissues work together to do the same function they form an
organ. When different organs work together to do the same function they form an
organ system. When different organ systems work together, they form an organism.

Living organisms such as animals & plants are complex entities composed of various
interacting parts. How many organ systems can you name & recognise?

1. The Digestive System: The Powerhouse of Nutrition

● Function: Breaks down large, insoluble food molecules (ie starch, proteins)
into small, soluble molecules (ie glucose, amino acids) to be dissolved and
transported in the blood and carried to all cells. These nutrients are then used
by the body for energy, growth, and repair.
● Main Organs involved in the digestive system:
o Mouth: Mechanical breakdown of food by teeth and tongue.
o Salivary glands: Secretion of saliva for moistening and initial digestion
(contains amylase that digests starch into glucose).
o Oesophagus (gullet): Muscular tube that propels food to the stomach
by the process of peristalsis .
o Stomach: Muscular sac that stores and churns food, mixing it with
digestive juices (acids and enzymes to aid chemical digestion).
o Small intestine: Major site of nutrient absorption through villi. Learn the
detailed structure of how the small intestine is adapted for efficient
absorption of nutrients
o Large intestine: Absorbs water and electrolytes, forming feces for
elimination.
o Liver: Produces bile for fat digestion, detoxifies blood, and stores
nutrients.
o Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and hormones (insulin and
glucagon) for regulating blood sugar levels.
2. The Respiratory System: The gas exchange system, brings in oxygen for
respiration and removes carbon dioxide

● Function: Takes in oxygen for cellular respiration and expels carbon dioxide, a
waste product.
● Main Organs:
o Nose: Filters and warms inhaled air.
o Pharynx (throat): Shared passage for air and food.
o Larynx (voice box): Contains vocal cords for sound production.
o Trachea (windpipe): Carries air to the bronchi.
o Bronchi: Branching tubes that deliver air to the lungs.
o Lungs: Site of gas exchange between air and blood.

3. The Circulatory System: Transports blood, carrying essential nutrients around the
body

● Function: Transports blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen, nutrients,

and hormones to cells and removing waste products.
● Main Organs:
o Heart: Muscular pump that propels blood throughout the circulatory
system.
o Blood vessels: Network of tubes carrying blood, including arteries
(carrying blood away from the heart), veins (carrying blood towards the
heart), and capillaries (microscopic vessels where exchange between
blood and tissues occurs).
o Blood: Fluid connective tissue containing red blood cells (transport
oxygen), white blood cells (immune defence), and platelets (involved in
clotting).

4. The Excretory System: The removal of harmful waste from the body

● Function: Removes waste products, excess water, and toxins from the blood,
maintaining homeostasis (internal balance).
● Main Organs:
o Kidneys: Filter waste products and excess water from the blood to form
urine.
o Ureters: Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
o Urinary bladder: Stores urine until elimination.
o Urethra: Tube that carries urine out of the body.

5. The Immune System: The body’s defence against harmful microbes (pathogens)

● Function: Protects the body from pathogens (disease-causing organisms) and

harmful substances.
● Main Organs:
o White blood cells: Defend against pathogens by engulfing and
destroying them.
o Lymph nodes: Filters lymph fluid and houses immune cells.
 o Spleen: Stores red blood cells and filters blood.
o Thymus: Plays a role in the development of T-lymphocytes (immune
cells).
o Antibodies: Proteins produced by the immune system to target specific
pathogens.

6. The Nervous System: The body’s coordination and control centre

● Function: Controls and coordinates all body functions, receives and interprets
information from the environment, and generates responses.
● Main Organs:
o Brain: Interprets sensory information, controls thoughts, emotions, and
movement.
o Spinal cord: Carries nerve impulses between the brain and the rest of
the body.
o Nerves: Bundle of nerve fibers that transmit electrical signals
throughout the body.

7. The Endocrine System: Chemical Messengers

● Function: Produces hormones that regulate various body functions, including

growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction.
● Main Organs:
o Pituitary gland: Often called the "master gland" as it controls the activity
of other endocrine glands.
o Thyroid gland: Produces hormones that regulate metabolism and
growth.
o Parathyroid gland: Produces hormones that regulate calcium levels in
the blood.
o Adrenal glands: Produce hormones involved in stress response, blood
sugar regulation, and mineral balance.
o Pancreas: Produces insulin and glucagon for regulating blood sugar
levels (also functions as part of the digestive system).
o Gonads
Here are some common misconceptions students might have based on the
information you provided:

Cell Membrane:

● Cell membranes are absolute barriers: While they are selective, some
small, non-charged molecules can pass through freely without following a
concentration gradient.
● Shape of phospholipids doesn't matter: The specific structure with
hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails is crucial for selective permeability.

Passive Transport:

● Diffusion only happens with gases: Diffusion applies to any molecule or ion
with a concentration gradient, not just gases.
● Osmosis only involves water movement: While water is the most common
solvent, osmosis can technically occur with other solvents too.

Active Transport:

● Active transport only uses ATP: Some active transport mechanisms might
use other energy sources like a gradient of another ion.

Concentration Gradients and Solutions:

● Concentration is only about the amount of solute: Concentration also

considers the volume of the solution.
● Animal cells always burst in hypotonic solutions: Animal cells can have
adaptations like contractile vacuoles to expel excess water and maintain
turgor.

Osmosis and Cell Size:

● Only animal cells are affected by osmosis: Plant cells also experience
changes in size due to osmosis, but their rigid cell walls prevent bursting in
most cases.

How are organisms organised?

● All organisms have the same organ systems: Simpler organisms may
have some combined functions or lack certain organ systems altogether.
● Organs are always complex structures: Some organs, like the human skin,
are relatively simple in structure but perform essential functions.
pen_spark
Task - Check your understanding.

1. The cell membrane is selectively permeable. What does this mean?

(a) It allows all substances to pass through freely.

(b) It only allows certain substances to pass through.
(c) It completely blocks the passage of all substances.
(d) It allows water to pass through but not other molecules.

Apply: Why might it be important for a cell to control what enters and leaves? (To
maintain a stable internal environment and regulate essential processes)

2. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a selectively

permeable membrane. What happens to a red blood cell placed in a hypotonic
solution?

(a) It will shrink (crenate) because water will move out of the cell.
(b) It will swell (lyse) because water will move into the cell.
(c) There will be no net movement of water because the solution is hypotonic.
(d) The red blood cell will not be affected because it has a cell wall.
Explanation: In a hypotonic solution, there is less solute outside the cell compared
to inside. Water will move into the cell, causing it to swell.
Apply: Why are plant cells able to withstand lyses better than animal cells?

3. Active transport requires energy input from the cell to move substances
against their concentration gradient. Which of the following is NOT a function
of the sodium-potassium pump, a common example of active transport?

(a) Maintains the balance of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane.
(b) Creates a concentration gradient for sodium ions that can be used for nerve
impulses.
(c) Allows glucose to enter the cell for energy production.
(d) Removes waste products from the cell.
B6 & 12 Cellular energetics (Respiration & Photosynthesis)

Living organisms need energy to survive. This energy comes from food, but where
does the food chain ultimately get its energy? The answer lies in two fundamental
processes: photosynthesis and respiration.

Photosynthesis: The Power of Sunlight

● What it is: Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some
bacteria capture light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy
stored in the form of glucose (a sugar). This glucose is the building block for
food and fuels all living organisms.
● The Reaction: The symbol equation for photosynthesis is:
● 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) + light energy → C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g)

o CO2 (g): Carbon dioxide (gas)

o H2O (l): Water (liquid)
o C6H12O6 (s): Glucose (sugar, solid)
o O2 (g): Oxygen (gas)

● Where it Happens: Photosynthesis takes place within chloroplasts, organelles

found in plant cells. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a pigment that traps
sunlight.
● Importance: Photosynthesis is vital for life on Earth. It produces the organic
compounds (food) used by all living things and releases oxygen, a gas
essential for respiration in most organisms. It also helps regulate the Earth's
climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Respiration: Breaking Down Food for Energy

● What it is: Respiration is the process by which living organisms break down
glucose to release energy for their cells' functions. This energy is used for
various activities like growth, movement, and maintaining body temperature.
There are two main types of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic.
● Aerobic Respiration: This is the most common type of respiration and requires
oxygen. The symbol equation for aerobic respiration is:
● C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) + ATP (energy)
o ATP (energy): Adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of cells.

Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria, the "powerhouse" of the cell.

● Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration does not require oxygen. It is

less efficient than aerobic respiration and produces less energy. It occurs in
some bacteria and during strenuous exercise in humans when oxygen supply
is limited. There are two main types of anaerobic respiration in plants and
animals:
o Alcoholic Fermentation (Plants and some Fungi): In this process,
glucose is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The symbol
equation is:
● C6H12O6 (s) → 2C2H5OH (l) + 2CO2 (g)
▪ C2H5OH (l): Ethanol (alcohol, liquid)
o Lactic Acid Fermentation (Animals and some Bacteria): In this process,
glucose is broken down into lactic acid. The symbol equation is:
o C6H12O6 (s) → 2CH3COOH (l)
o CH3CHOHCOOH (l): Lactic acid (liquid)
Here are some common mistakes IGCSE Biology students make regarding cellular
energetics (photosynthesis and respiration):

Photosynthesis:

● Misunderstanding the role of light: Light energy is not used directly to build
glucose. It provides the energy to power the chemical reactions that convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose.
● Thinking photosynthesis only happens in leaves: While leaves are the
primary site, other green plant parts like stems can also photosynthesize.
● Confusing reactants and products: Students might mix up the starting
materials (CO2 and H2O) with the end products (glucose and O2) in the
photosynthesis equation.

Respiration:

● Confusing cellular respiration with breathing: Cellular respiration happens

at the cellular level, while breathing is the mechanical process of taking in
oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide.
● Assuming all organisms use aerobic respiration all the time: Some
organisms, like certain bacteria, rely solely on anaerobic respiration.
● Misunderstanding the role of fermentation: Fermentation is not the
preferred way for cells to obtain energy, but it's a way to survive in
oxygen-limited conditions.
● Mixing up the products of different fermentation processes: Students
might confuse ethanol (alcoholic fermentation) with lactic acid (lactic acid
fermentation).

General misconceptions:

● Thinking respiration reverses photosynthesis: These are separate

processes, but they are linked as respiration uses the products of
photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen).
● Assuming more oxygen means more energy production: Cellular
respiration is a complex process with other factors limiting energy output
besides oxygen availability.

Tips to avoid these mistakes:

● Pay close attention to the wording of definitions and explanations.

● Practice writing balanced chemical equations for both processes.
● Use diagrams to visualise the locations (chloroplasts and mitochondria) and
processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
● Distinguish between cellular respiration and breathing.
● Understand the different types of respiration and their products.
Task - Check your understanding:

1. What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

2. Why does the heart and small intestine contain many mitochondria?

3. How is lactic acid removed in animals after vigorous exercise?

B8 & 9 Transport in plants and animals

Animals have a more complex transport system consisting of a circulatory system

and a lymphatic system.

Circulatory System

● Composed of blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) and a pump (the
heart).
● Blood transports various substances throughout the body, including:
o Oxygen and carbon dioxide (respiratory gases)
o Nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids)
o Waste products (urea, carbon dioxide)
o Hormones
o Heat
● Blood is made up of plasma (a liquid component) and cells (red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets).

Types of Blood Vessels

● Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to tissues. They have
thick, muscular walls to withstand high pressure.
● Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. They have thinner walls
and valves to prevent backflow.
● Capillaries: Tiny, thin-walled vessels where exchange of materials between
blood and tissues occurs.
The Heart

● A muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

● Divided into four chambers: two upper atria (receiving chambers) and two
lower ventricles (pumping chambers).
● Blood circulation follows two main pathways:
o Pulmonary circulation: Blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs,
picks up oxygen, and returns to the left atrium via the left ventricle.
o Systemic circulation: Oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is
pumped to all body tissues through arteries, then returns to the right
atrium through veins.

Lymphatic System

● A network of thin vessels and tissues that collects excess fluid (lymph) from
tissues and returns it to the bloodstream.
● Lymph contains white blood cells and plays a role in immune function.
Plants lack a circulatory system and rely on a specialised transport system to move
essential materials throughout their bodies. This system involves two main tissue
types:

● Xylem: Transports water and dissolved mineral ions upwards from the roots
to the shoots (stems and leaves).
● Phloem: Transports dissolved organic solutes (mainly sucrose, but also
amino acids) throughout the plant, from areas of production (usually leaves) to
areas of storage or use (stems, roots, fruits, flowers).

Xylem

● Composed of hollow, dead cells called tracheid’s and vessel elements.

● Lignin thickens their cell walls, providing strength and preventing them from
collapsing.
● Water and mineral ions move through xylem by a combination of factors:
o Adhesion: Water molecules stick to the walls of xylem vessels.
o Cohesion: Water molecules attract each other, forming a continuous
chain.
o Transpiration pull: Water evaporates from leaves through tiny pores
called stomata, creating a suction that pulls water up the xylem.
o Root pressure: In some plants, root pressure helps push water up the
xylem to a limited extent.
Phloem

● Made up of living cells called sieve tubes and companion cells.

● Sieve tubes have perforated cell walls, allowing dissolved solutes to flow
freely.
● Companion cells help load and unload solutes from sieve tubes.
● Transport of solutes in phloem occurs through mass flow:
o Sugar is actively loaded into sieve tubes in regions of production
(usually leaves) using energy from ATP.
o This creates a high concentration of solutes in the sieve tubes.
o Water moves passively into the sieve tubes from surrounding tissues
due to osmosis.
o The increased pressure in the sieve tubes pushes the sugar solution
towards areas of lower concentration (storage or use).
Common Misconceptions for IGCSE Biology Students (0610):

Circulatory System:

● Confusing arteries and veins: Students might mix up which vessels carry
oxygenated or deoxygenated blood.
● Thinking the heart mixes oxygenated and deoxygenated blood: The
chambers of the heart keep oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate.

Lymphatic System:

● Confusing the lymphatic system with the circulatory system: While they
work together, they are distinct systems.

Transport System in Plants:

● Thinking xylem transports sap: Xylem transports water and minerals, not
the entire sap (which also includes sugars).
● Misunderstanding the role of transpiration: Transpiration is not just water
loss, it creates a suction that pulls water up the xylem.

General misconceptions:

● Thinking plants don't transport materials: Plants have a well-developed

transport system, just different from animals.
● Assuming all transport is passive: While some mechanisms (adhesion,
cohesion) in xylem are passive, phloem transport relies on active loading of
solutes.
Task: Check your understanding:

1. Explain why arteries are thicker than veins?

2. Name the blood vessels that transport blood to and from

- Lungs
- Kidney
- Small intestine to the liver

3. Describe the difference between translocation and transpiration processes

4. Describe the difference in structure between Xylem and Phloem

B10 Diseases & immunity

Pathogens and Disease

● A pathogen is a disease-causing organism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi,

protozoa, or worms.
● Transmissible diseases can be spread from one infected individual to another.
This can happen through various means, including:
o Direct contact: Touching an infected person or contaminated object.
o Indirect contact: Contact with airborne droplets from coughs or
sneezes, or contaminated surfaces.
o Vectors: Transmission by insects or other animals.
o Bodily fluids: Through contact with blood, saliva, or other bodily fluids.

The Body's Defences

The human body has several lines of defence against pathogens:

● Physical barriers: Skin, mucous membranes (lining of respiratory and

digestive tracts), and tears help prevent pathogens from entering the body.
● Phagocytes: White blood cells that engulf and destroy pathogens using
enzymes.
● Inflammatory response: Localised swelling, redness, heat, and pain that
isolate the infection and attract immune cells.
● Immune system: A complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that
recognises and fights off pathogens.

The Immune System: The immune system can be divided into two main parts:

● Innate immunity: The body's non-specific first line of defence, present at

birth. It includes physical barriers, phagocytes, and inflammatory response.
● Adaptive immunity: A more specific defence system that develops over time
through exposure to pathogens or vaccinations. It involves:
o B lymphocytes (B cells): Produce antibodies, specialised proteins that
can bind to specific pathogens and mark them for destruction.
o T lymphocytes (T cells): Orchestrate the immune response by directly
attacks infected cells or helping B cells produce antibodies.
o Memory cells: Long-lived lymphocytes that "remember" specific
pathogens and can mount a quicker immune response upon
re-exposure.
Types of Immunity

● Active immunity: Develops when the body is exposed to a weakened form of

the pathogen (vaccine) or a harmless part of the pathogen (antigen) (vaccine)
or fights off a natural infection. Memory cells are created, providing long-term
protection.
● Passive immunity: Short-term protection acquired by receiving antibodies
from another individual. This can occur through:
o Maternal antibodies: Passed from mother to baby through the placenta
and breast milk.
o Antiserum: Injection of antibodies produced by another organism (e.g.,
rabies antiserum).

Vaccines and Vaccination

● Vaccines contain weakened or inactive pathogens (or their antigens) that

stimulate the immune system to develop active immunity without causing the
disease itself
● The dead or weakened pathogen activates the body’s adaptive immune
response by stimulating lymphocyte cells to produce antibodies
● Memory cells remain behind, so that the body’s immune system responds
much more rapidly on re-entry of the pathogen in the future
● Vaccination programs are essential for controlling infectious diseases and
promoting herd immunity.
● Herd immunity: When a large proportion of the population is immune to a
specific disease, it becomes difficult for the pathogen to spread and infect
susceptible individuals.

Communicable Diseases: Some examples of communicable diseases covered in

the IGCSE syllabus include:

● Bacterial diseases: Caused by bacteria, such as tuberculosis, pneumonia,

and food poisoning.
● Viral diseases: Caused by viruses, such as influenza (flu), HIV/AIDS, and
COVID-19.
● Protozoan diseases: Caused by protozoa, such as malaria.

Importance of Hygiene: Maintaining good hygiene practices like frequent

handwashing, proper food handling, and safe sexual behaviour can significantly
reduce the risk of contracting infectious diseases.

Antibiotics

● Antibiotics are medications that target and kill bacteria only. Antibiotics do not
work on viruses.
● Overuse and misuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, where
bacteria develop mechanisms to evade the effects of antibiotics. This is a
growing public health concern.
Common Misconceptions for IGCSE Biology Students (0610):

● Immune system vs. specific defences: Students might confuse the overall
immune system with individual defence mechanisms like phagocytes or
inflammatory response. Emphasize that these mechanisms work together as
part of the immune system.
● Misunderstanding memory cells: Students might struggle with the concept
of memory cells and how they contribute to faster response upon re-exposure.
● Thinking antibiotics work on all diseases: Reiterate that antibiotics are
specific to bacteria and won't work against viruses or other pathogens.

Here are some additional tips for IGCSE Biology students:

● Learn the difference between antigens and antibodies: Understanding

how antigens (foreign molecules) trigger antibody production is crucial.
● Recognize the difference between innate and adaptive immunity: Innate
immunity is immediate but non-specific, while adaptive immunity develops
over time and is specific to the pathogen.
● Distinguish between the different types of immunity (active vs. passive):
Explain how active immunity provides long-term protection through memory
cells, while passive immunity offers short-term protection.
Check your understanding:

1. Which of the following is not a physical barrier that helps defend the body
against pathogens?

(a) Skin
(b) Mucous membranes
(c) Inflammatory response
(d) Tears

2. Immunity can be broadly categorised into two types. Innate and adaptive.
Which description matches innate immunity?

(a) Specific and develops over time

(b) Non-specific and present at birth
(c) Acquired through vaccination
(d) Dependent on memory cells

3. Vaccines are most effective in providing

(a) Passive immunity with short-term protection

(b) Active immunity with long-term protection
(c) Treatment for existing infections
(d) Complete eradication of all pathogens

4. Explain how antibiotic resistance develops.

Chemistry
C1 States of matter

All matter is made up of atoms. The particles that make up matter can arrange
themselves in different compositions, containing different amounts of internal
energy (kinetic energy which is due to the vibrations of the particles AND potential
energy which is due to the strength of the forces of attraction between the particles).

Matter exists in three states (particle composition). Solids, liquids or gases. Below
is the particle model that represents the 3 states of matter.

C2 Atoms, elements & compounds

All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms are the smallest, indivisible unit/particles that
can exist. When two or more of the same atoms chemically bond, they form an
element. There are 119 known elements (discovered so far, we may discover more
in the future). These 119 elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of
atomic number. Every element is given a symbol, with 2 numbers written above and
below the symbol. See image of Na below.

These 2 numbers show the atomic number and mass number of the element,
which tell us some important information about the element. The atomic number,
which is the smaller number of the two tells us the number of protons in the nucleus
of that atom. The mass number, which is the bigger number, tells us the total sum of
the protons plus the neutrons in that atom.
Atomic structure: Each individual atom is made up of 3 sub-atomic particles.

The evolution of the models of the atomic structure

Protons which have a charge of +1 each and a mass of 1amu and are in the
nucleus of the atom.

Neutrons have a neutral charge (zero/no charge) and have a mass of 1amu each
and are also located in the nucleus of the atom.

Electrons are negatively charged particles, with a charge of -1 each and having
virtually no mass (1/1899 amu), so they orbit in fixed energy levels outside the
nucleus of the atom.

Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, so most of the atom’s mass is
concentrated in the nucleus. Electrons having virtually no mass are light and can
easily be lost or gained by the atom. The transfer or sharing of outer shell electrons
(valence) between atoms is what causes chemical reactions to happen.

Isotopes are two or more of the same elements that contain same number of
protons but different number of neutrons. Since isotopes contain the same number of
protons, they have the same electronic configuration and therefore react the same,
however they have different mass.

Every element in the periodic table has isotopes. So Relative atomic mass is
calculated which considers the relative abundance of each isotope of that element.

Ar = Σ (isotope mass x isotope abundance) / 100

All the known elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of atomic number.
The elements are also arranged in groups and periods. Elements with similar
chemical properties are arranged in the same group. Each elements group and
period in the periodic table is based on its electronic configuration. Elements have no
overall charge as they contain equal number of protons and electrons.
The electrons in each atom are arranged in fixed energy shells, the first energy level
(closest to the nucleus), has the lowest energy and can only hold 2 electrons, the
second energy level can hold 8 and the third can hold 8: thus we use the 2,8,8 rule
when filling electrons for electronic configuration of atoms.

The number of energy shells determines the atoms period number in the periodic
table.

The number of electrons in the outer most shell determines the atom’s group number
in the periodic table.

So, group 1 atoms all have 1 electron in their outer most shell. Group 7 elements
have 7 electrons in their outer most shell and so on.

Noble gases have a full outer shell. They are sometimes called group 0. They are
inert (unreactive) as they have a full outer shell.

Every atom wants to gain a full outer shell, so that’s why elements react with other
elements, to get a full outer shell. In other words, to attain the electronic
configuration of the noble gases.

When metals react with non-metals, there is a transfer of electrons. Metals have the
tendency to lose their outer shell electrons and become positively charged ions.
Group 1 become +1 ions; group 2 become +2 ions and so on.

Non-metals have the tendency to gain outer shell electrons, so become negatively
charged ions. Group 7 become -1 ions and group 6 become -2 ions and so on.

When metals react with non-metals, they form ionic bonds as they become
oppositely charged ions and are consequently attracted to each other. Ionic bonds
are electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions. Metals and
non-metals form giant lattice ionic crystalline structures which have high MP/BP.
The ionic bond is directionless and found at every point in the ionic structure. Ionic
structures cannot conduct electricity when solid as the ions are fixed in position
(cannot move in the solid state), however when molten or dissolved ionic structures
can conduct heat & electricity as the ions are free to move to carry the
charge/current & heat.

When non-metals react with non-metals, they have the same tendency for gaining
electrons, so instead they share their outer shell electrons by merging their outer
energy shells. Covalent bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between the
nuclei of two atoms and the shared pair of electrons between them. We use dot &
cross diagrams to illustrate the sharing of electrons. See diagrams below.

Covalent bonding is directional. Covalent bonds are very strong, in fact they are the
strongest chemical bonds of the three (ionic, covalent & metallic). Covalent bonding
give rise to different types of covalent structures; simple covalent structure such as
methane, ammonia, water etc and giant covalent structures such as graphite &
diamond.

Simple covalent molecules are usually gases at room temperature, they cannot
conduct as they have no charge. They have low MP and BP, as they have weak
intermolecular forces between the molecules. The covalent bonds between the
atoms are very strong, however the forces between the molecules are weak and can
easily be overcome with little energy.

Giant covalent structures such as diamond and graphite are made of up of many
carbon atoms. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms, so
they form a giant tetrahedral structure. Diamond is very hard and very strong due to
the strong covalent bonds, so is used as a cutting tool. It has very high MP/BP due
to the giant structure, which means there are many covalent bonds present in the
structure. Diamond is not able to conduct electricity as it does not contain any
delocalised electrons. In graphite, each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms,
which means for every carbon atom there is one delocalised electron (free to move),
which is why graphite is able to conduct electricity as these free electrons can carry
charge/current & heat throughout the structure. Graphite forms hexagonal rings,
arranged in layers, with weak intermolecular forces between the layers. These weak
intermolecular forces can be easily overcome with little energy/force, as the layers
can slip & slide over each other. This makes graphite soft, and therefore useful as
lubricants. Graphite is also used as an electrical component as it is a good
conductor.

Metallic bonding happens between metal atoms. Metals form uniform/regular layers
of cations, releasing their outer shell electrons. The electrons form a ‘sea’ of
negatively charged cloud (film) that flows between the layers of metal cations,
preventing the cations from repelling each other. The metallic bond is therefore a
force of attraction between the positively charged metal cations and the ‘sea’ of
negatively charged, delocalised electrons that surround it (see diagram below).
Metals form giant metallic lattices, and their structure gives metals their unique
physical properties, such as strength, malleability, conductivity, ductility and so on.
Metals are soft but strong due to having strong electrostatic forces of attraction,
which requires a lot of energy to overcome. They are soft due to the uniform/regular
layer arrangement, which can slip and slide over each other. This makes metals
malleable, which is what allows them to be bent into different shapes.

Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to having delocalised
electrons, which are free to move throughout the structure, carrying current/charge
& heat. Metals are ductile, which means they can be easily pulled into thin wires
without breaking/snapping due to the strong metallic bonds and uniform layers.

Metals are mixed with other atoms and metals to make them into alloys. Alloys have
irregular arrangement of atoms, due to the different sized atoms making them harder
than metals as the layers cannot slip and slide over each other. Alloys are mixtures
and not compounds, so can be easily separated back into pure metals. Examples of
alloys; steel (iron & copper); stainless steel, bronze, brass etc.

Common Misconceptions for IGCSE Chemistry Students (0620):

Atoms & Elements:

● Confusing protons and neutrons: Students might mix up their location

(nucleus) and charge (protons positive, neutrons neutral).
● Thinking the number of protons determines the element: The number of
protons defines the element, not the total mass (which includes neutrons).

Chemical Bonding:

● Misunderstanding the octet rule: While the octet rule is a helpful concept,
it's not always strictly followed. Some elements can have more or less than
eight electrons in their outer shells.
● Thinking ionic bonding only involves metals and non-metals: Some
non-metals can form ionic bonds with each other.
● Confusing metallic bonding with a "sea of electrons" model: The
delocalized electrons in metallic bonding aren't just floating around aimlessly;
they are attracted to the positively charged metal cations.
Task - Check your understanding

1. According to the kinetic theory, what determines the state of matter (solid,
liquid, or gas)?

(a) The type of atom the matter is made of.

(b) The total number of atoms in the matter.
(c) The arrangement and kinetic energy of the particles in the matter.
(d) The presence or absence of a definite shape and volume.

2. Apply: If you heat a solid, what will generally happen to the arrangement and
kinetic energy of its particles?

3. An atom is made up of subatomic particles. Which of the following

statements about protons, neutrons, and electrons is true?

(a) Protons and neutrons have the same charge, but electrons have a different
charge.
(b) Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have a negative charge, and electrons
have no charge.
(c) Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a
negative charge.
(d) Protons have a negative charge, neutrons have a positive charge, and electrons
have no charge.

4. Apply: If an atom gains two electrons, what would happen to its overall charge?
5. Explain why graphite can conduct electricity but diamond cannot? State one use
for each!

6. Why can’t ionic structures conduct electricity when solid however can when
molten or dissolved?

7. State and explain 2 physical properties of simple covalent structures.

C3 Stoichiometry

Atoms react to get a full outer shell, so that they have the same electronic
configuration as noble gases. Noble gases are inert (unreactive), so they exist as
monatomic atoms. Different elements have different reactivity, depending on their
tendency to gain or lose electrons. Group 1 metals are the most reactive as they
have the strongest tendency to lose their outer shell electrons. Group 7 are the most
reactive non-metals as they have the tendency to gain an electron to get a full outer
shell.

All reactive atoms are not found in their element form in nature, but in compound
form in rocks and minerals, such as metal oxides (metals reacted with oxygen in the
air), metal hydroxides (metals reacted with water in the environment), metal
sulphates/nitrates/phosphates etc (metals that reacted with acids in the
environment).

When 2 or more of the same atoms react, forming a chemical bond they make an
element. When 2 or more different types of atoms react, forming a chemical bond
they make a compound. Elements and compounds are pure substances.
Elements and compounds, depending on the type of chemical bond they form (ionic,
covalent, or metallic), can have molecular or lattice structurers. Covalent
structures are referred to as molecules. Molecules can be simple, large, or giant.
Ionic and metallic structures are referred to as lattices.

Molecules and lattices are given chemical formulae, which denotes the simplest
whole number ratio of the atoms that make it up. For example, simple molecules
such as Ammonia (NH3), Methane (CH4), Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2). Ionic
lattices such as sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium oxide (MgO), Calcium sulphate
(CaSO4).

Chemical reactions are represented using word and chemical symbol equations.
Balanced chemical symbol equations show the mole ratios of reactants and
products. We can use balanced chemical symbol equations to calculate the number
of reactants needed to make a certain amount of products or vice versa. They allow
us to determine the limiting reactant in a chemical reaction. They also allow us to
calculate percentage yield and atom economy of a reaction.
You need to know the following equations and how to rearrange them. You also need
to understand and use unit conversions and give answers in standard form, as well
as to required number of decimal places and significant figures.
Common Misconceptions for IGCSE Chemistry Students (0620):

● Confusing balancing equations with stoichiometry: Balancing an equation

comes before stoichiometry calculations. Stoichiometry uses the balanced
equation to determine quantities.
● Misunderstanding mole concept: Students might struggle with the concept of
moles and mole ratios in representing quantities of reactants and products.
● Limiting reactant confusion: Identifying the limiting reactant based on the
amount of products formed can be challenging for some students.

Top Tips for IGCSE Chemistry Students (0620):

● Practice balancing equations: Mastering balancing equations is crucial before

attempting stoichiometry problems.
● Memorise common polyatomic ions: Knowing the charges of common
polyatomic ions helps in writing balanced equations quickly.
● Focus on mole conversions: Understanding mole conversions between
grams, moles, and litres is key to stoichiometry calculations.
● Practice with different types of problems: Work on problems involving limiting
reactants, percentage yield, and atom economy to gain confidence.
● Pay attention to units and significant figures: Ensure you use the correct units
in calculations and round answers to the appropriate number of significant
figures.
Task - Check your understanding

1. Limiting Reactant and Excess Reactant:

In a reaction between 2 moles of propane (C3H8) and 6 moles of oxygen (O2),
how can you determine the limiting reactant and the excess reactant? (Hint:
Consider mole ratios and the reaction equation)
2. Mass of Product from a Given Reactant: The complete combustion of butane
(C4H10) produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). If 5.0 g of butane is
completely burned in oxygen, what is the theoretical mass of water produced?
(Hint: Write the balanced equation, calculate moles of butane, use mole ratios to
find moles of water, and convert moles to grams)
3. Percentage Yield: In a laboratory experiment, 10.0 g of sodium chloride (NaCl)
is reacted with excess silver nitrate (AgNO3) to produce silver chloride (AgCl) and
sodium nitrate (NaNO3). The actual yield of silver chloride obtained is 8.5 g.
Calculate the percentage yield of silver chloride in this reaction. (Hint: Write the
balanced equation, calculate theoretical yield using mole ratios and masses, and
use the formula: % yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) x 100%)
4. Concentration and Stoichiometry: An aqueous solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
is used to neutralise a solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). If 25.0 mL of 0.20
mol/cm3 of H2SO4 solution is required to neutralise 40.0 cm3 of NaOH solution,
what was the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution? (Hint: Write the
balanced equation, calculate moles of sulfuric acid used, use mole ratios to find
moles of sodium hydroxide, and calculate the concentration of NaOH using
volume and moles)
C5 & 6 chemical energetics and chemical reactions

From the previous section, you should know why atoms react and how chemical
reactions are represented using word and balanced chemical symbol equations.
Understanding how chemical reactions happen is important in the chemical
manufacturing industry. By investigating the rate of reactions, scientists can design
chemical reactions that maximise product yield whilst minimising energy, resource,
and labour costs. Manufacturing companies compete for efficiency in minimising
costs whilst maximising profits. Scientists are also held to legal and ethical
responsibilities to ensure that they are conserving limited resources, that they are
minimising waste and ensuring sustainability.

All chemical reactions proceed through the following 4 steps, in sequence.

- Reactant particles must first collide (with sufficient energy ie

Activation energy)
- Old bonds between reactant particles are BROKEN
- Atoms (are free) to rearrange
- New bonds between products particles are MADE
o All chemical reactions require an input of energy to start (Activation
energy)
o Bond breaking is an endothermic process (ie requires energy input)
o Once atoms rearrange, they can form a new product (thus resulting in
a chemical change).
o Bond making is an exothermic process (it always releases energy)
o The bonds between the atoms are referred to as the SYSTEM.
o Everything outside of these chemical bonds is referred to as
SURROUNDINGS.
o Chemical bonds are a store of chemical potential energy.
o All chemical reactions involve an energy change. Reactions are either
overall endothermic or exothermic.
o The energy change of reactions can be determined by measuring
temperature change by using a thermometer. Temperature measures
the average kinetic energy of particles and can only be measured from
the SURROUNDINGS.
o Endothermic reactions take in energy from the surroundings. In
other words, the chemical reaction causes energy to be transferred
from the surrounding into the system, causing a decrease in
temperature. So endothermic reactions cause the surrounding to
become colder.
o Exothermic reactions release energy into the surroundings. In other
words, the chemical reaction causes energy to be transferred from
 system to surroundings, causing an increase in temperature. So
exothermic reactions cause the surrounding to become warmer.

Reaction profiles show exothermic and endothermic reactions in terms of the

energy changes involved.

Explaining exothermic reaction from the energy profile diagrams:

- Reactants are at a HIGHER energy level than products.

- Enthalpy change (ΔH) is negative.
- The energy absorbed to BREAK old bonds is SMALLER than
the energy released from MAKING new bonds.

Explaining endothermic reactions from the energy profile

- Reactants are at a LOWER energy level than products.

- Enthalpy change (ΔH) is positive.
- The energy absorbed to BREAK old bonds is GREATER than
the energy released from MAKING new bonds.
Rate of a reaction

Rate of reaction measures how quickly products are made in a chemical reaction
OR how quickly reactants are used up.

The rate (speed) of a reaction can be changed by changing the following conditions
of a chemical reaction

- Increasing concentration for reactions involving solutions

- Increasing surface area for reactions involving solids (ie using
powder instead of lumps).
- Increasing pressure for reactions involving gases
- Increasing temperature
- Using a catalyst

Increasing concentration increases the rate of reaction, as there are more particles
per unit volume therefore the frequency of collisions is greater.

Increasing surface area increases the rate of a reaction, as there is more area
exposed per volume ratio so there is a greater frequency of collisions.

Increasing pressure increases the rate of a reaction by increasing the number of

particles per unit volume, therefore resulting in greater frequency of collisions of
particles. Pressure is a measure of the total number of collisions between gas
particles with themselves and the walls of their container. There are 3 ways to
increase the pressure of a gas; increasing the number of gas particles in the same
volume; increasing the temperature of the gas particles so that they are moving
faster due to having greater kinetic energy and decreasing the volume of the
container as this will cause the gas particles to be closer to each other and therefore
collide more often.

Adding a catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction as it provides an alternative pathway

with a lower activation energy. Catalysts speed up the rate of the reaction but are
themselves not used up during the reaction. Catalysts are expensive however they
are cost-effective as they can be re-used. Nano-sized catalysts are even more
efficient as they have a large surface area to volume ratio, so less can produce the
same effect as bulk materials.

There are different equipment used when investigating rate of reaction and
measuring the rate of a reaction in the lab. The equipment used depends on the type
of reaction.
We can investigate the factors which affect the rate of chemical reactions by
measuring:

- the loss in mass of reactants or the mass of product produced

- the volume of gas produced in a reaction.
- the time for a solution to become opaque or coloured
(disappearing cross)

Apparatus for measuring mass loss

Apparatus for measuring volume of gas evolved

Disappearing cross method

The data collected from the above investigations can be tabulated and then plotted
in graphs to calculate the rate of different chemical reactions.
The investigations can then be modified to see the effect of changing temperature,
concentration, pressure, surface area on the rate of the reaction. The experimental
procedure has sources of errors, which can be identified and then minimised to
increase reliability and reproducibility of the data.

Common Misconceptions for IGCSE Chemistry Students (0620):

Stoichiometry:

● Misunderstanding the mole concept: Students might struggle with the

concept of moles and mole ratios in representing quantities of reactants and
products.

Chemical Energetics:

● Confusing temperature and heat: Temperature is a measure of average

kinetic energy, while heat is the transfer of thermal energy.
● Thinking all exothermic reactions are spontaneous: Some exothermic
reactions might have a high activation energy, making them slow.

Chemical Reactions:

● Confusing catalysts and reactants: Catalysts participate in the reaction but

are not used up.
● Thinking increasing pressure always increases reaction rate: Pressure
only increases the rate for reactions involving gases.
Task - Check your understanding

1. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms. What happens

to the bonds between atoms during a chemical reaction?

(a) No change occurs to the bonds between atoms.

(b) Old bonds are broken and new bonds are formed.
(c) New bonds are formed and old bonds lengthen.
(d) Old bonds shorten and new bonds are created.

2. The rate of a chemical reaction can be affected by several factors. Which

of the following will NOT increase the rate of a reaction?

(a) Increasing the concentration of the reactants (for reactions in solutions).

(b) Decreasing the temperature of the reaction.
(c) Adding a catalyst.
(d) Increasing the surface area of the solid reactants.

3. State 2 ways to recognise an exothermic reaction in the lab.

4. Define activation energy.

5. How is the rate of reaction calculated from a graph?

6. Explain the effect of increasing temperature on the rate of a reaction.
Physics

Density:

● Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is denoted

by the symbol ρ (rho) and is measured in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm³).
● density = mass / volume.
● Relative density compares the density of a substance to the density of water,
to determine whether the substance will sink or float on water.
● To determine the density of a regular object

- Measure the mass of the object using a weighing scale/balance.

- You determine the volume of the object by measuring length,
width & height using a ruler (volume = length x width x height)
- You calculate the density of the regular object by:
- density = mass/volume
● To determine the density of an irregular object
- Measure the mass of the object
using a weighing scale/balance.
- You determine the volume of the
object by immersing it in a
measuring cylinder filled with a
known volume of water (diagram
below), then by measuring the
volume of water displaced by the
object (volume of object = final
volume – initial volume)
- You calculate the density of the regular object by: density =
mass/volume
Pressure

● Pressure is the force exerted per unit area and is measured in pascals (Pa).
● Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest due to the force
of gravity.
● Pressure = Force/Area
● Pascal's principle states that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished (equally) to every portion of the fluid and to the walls
of its container.
● The pressure exerted on an object immersed
in fluid increases as the object travels further
in the depth of the fluid. This is because the
weight increases with increasing depth due to
there being more particles above, so a greater
force is acting on the same surface area

(same object)

Why does the balloon not pop?

Motion

● Motion involves the change in position of an object with respect to time. There
are different types of motion, including linear motion, circular motion, and
projectile motion. Motion graphs: distance-time graphs and velocity-time
graphs
Forces

Forces are pushes or pulls acting on an object, causing it to change its state of
motion. The unit of force is the newton (N).

When the forces acting on an object are opposite and equal, there is no resultant
force, so the object is either

- Stationary (at rest) OR

- Travelling at constant speed

When the forces acting on an object are unequal, the object experiences resultant
force in a specific direction (we use vector diagrams to determine the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force), this resultant force changes the object’s:

- Motion (go from stationary to moving or from moving to

stationary etc)
- Speed (speed up or slow down ie accelerate or decelerate)
- Direction
- Shape

Forces are either contact or non-contact forces:

- Contact forces – arise when objects physically interact and acts

at the point of contact between the objects; examples include
push/pull forces, drag/friction/air resistance, upthrust/propulsion,
tension/strain force etc
- Non-contact forces act on an object at a distance without
touching the object; examples include gravity, magnetism,
electrostatic forces.
-
Newton's laws of motion describe the relationship between the motion of an object
and the forces acting upon it.

Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):

● An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in
motion with a constant velocity unless an external force acts upon the object.
● Equation: F = 0 (ie zero resultant force)
● The sum of all forces acting on an object is zero when it is in equilibrium (at
rest or moving with constant velocity). This equation implies that if the net
force acting on an object is zero, its velocity will not change.

Newton's Second Law (Law of Acceleration):

● The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force

(Resultant force) acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
● This law is often stated as F = ma, where F is the net (resultant) force applied
to an object, m is its mass, and a is its acceleration.
● F = ma
● This equation quantifies the relationship between force, mass, and
acceleration. It states that the force acting on an object is equal to the product
of its mass and acceleration. If an unbalanced force is applied to an object, it
will accelerate in the direction of the force.

Newton's Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction):

● For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. When one object
exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and
opposite force on the first.
● Equation: F₁ = -F₂
● This law emphasises that forces always occur in pairs. If object A exerts a
force on object B (action), object B simultaneously exerts an equal but
opposite force on object A (reaction). Mathematically, the magnitudes of the
forces are equal, but they act in opposite directions.
Weight = mass x gravity

Centre of gravity

The centre of gravity refers specifically to the point on the object where the
gravitational force can be considered to act.

Object’s stability:

o Objects with a lower centre of gravity are generally more stable than
those with a higher centre of gravity. This is because a lower centre of
gravity creates a wider base of support, making it more difficult for the
object to tip over.
o For example, a squat and wide-based object like a pyramid or a low
and wide stance of a person is more stable than a tall and
narrow-based object like a pencil or a person standing on one foot.

Base of Support:

o The base of support is the area beneath an object that supports its
weight and prevents it from toppling over. A wider base of support
provides greater stability
o When an object's centre of gravity falls outside its base of support, it
becomes unstable and may fall over.

Shift in Centre of Gravity:

o Any change in the distribution of mass within an object can cause its
centre of gravity to shift. As a result, the stability of the object may
change.
o For example, when a person leans forward, the centre of gravity of
their body shifts forward, potentially causing them to lose balance and
fall.

Moment of Inertia:

o The moment of inertia of an object describes its resistance to changes

in rotational motion. Objects with more mass distributed farther from
their centre of gravity have higher moments of inertia and may be more
prone to tipping over.
o This effect is commonly observed in objects like tall towers or trees,
where strong winds can exert torque, causing them to fall over if their
centre of gravity is not sufficiently low or supported.
Moments

● Moments (torques) are the turning effect of a force about a pivot point.
● moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot.

● Momentum is the product of an object's mass and its velocity. Momentum is

conserved in collisions and explosions. i.e. the momentum before = the
momentum after
Energy

● Energy is the ability to do work. It exists in various forms. Here are some of
the different forms of energy.

- Chemical potential (energy stored in chemical bonds)

- Kinetic energy – energy moving objects possesses.
- Sound energy – vibrations caused by energy moving through
mediums (solids, liquids, gases)
- Light energy – a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted by hot
objects
- Gravitational potential energy – the energy an object moving
against gravity possesses
- Elastic potential energy – energy stored in a compressed spring
or stretched elastic

● Gravitational Potential Energy: The energy an object possesses due to its

position in a gravitational field
● Gravitational Potential Energy = mass (m) x gravitational field strength (g) x
height (h) (units: J).
● When an object is raised against gravity, its gravitational potential energy
store increases the higher its height.
● When the objects falls/moves closer to the ground, its gravitational potential
store decreases whilst its kinetic energy store increases (so the object falls
faster and faster until it reaches terminal velocity, which is the maximum
velocity).
● Kinetic Energy: The energy an object in motion possesses.
● Kinetic energy = 1/2 x mass (m) x velocity² (v²) (units: J, Joules).
● When the object is about to reach the lowest point/ground, 100% of its GPE
has been transferred into KE, which means we can calculate the velocity of
the object
Power & Efficiency

● Power: The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.

● Power = Work done / Time taken OR Power = Energy transferred / Time taken
(units: W, Watts).
● Efficiency: A measure of how well a machine or system converts input
energy into useful output energy.
● Efficiency = (Useful energy output / Total energy input) x 100%.

Thermal Energy Transfer - thermal energy, also known as heat, can be transferred
between objects in three main ways:

● Conduction: The transfer of thermal energy through direct contact between

objects. Imagine holding a hot cup of coffee. The hot coffee has particles that
are moving very fast. When you touch the cup, some of that fast movement is
transferred to your hand, making your hand feel hot. This transfer of energy
from the hot coffee (high thermal energy) to your hand (low thermal energy) is
called conduction. Metals are good conductors of heat, while materials like
wood or plastic are poor conductors (insulators). The reason why metals are
better at transferring thermal energy is because all materials rely on the
vibrations of the particles to transfer the energy, however metals also contain
delocalised electrons (which are free to move), so can transfer the thermal
energy faster.
● Convection: The transfer of thermal energy through the movement of fluids
(liquids and gases). As a fluid is heated, its particles move faster and expand
(particles move apart, the volume of the particles itself stays the same),
causing the fluid to become less dense. This less dense fluid rises, while
cooler, denser fluid sinks. This creates a continuous circulation pattern called
a convection current. Convection currents are responsible for heat transfer in
liquids and gases, like air circulation in a heated room or water boiling in a
pot, as well as the causing continental drift on Earth’s tectonic plates due to
convection currents in the mantle of the Earth.
● Radiation: The transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic waves. Unlike
conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium (particles).
All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation in
the form of infrared waves. The hotter the object, the more radiation it emits
and the shorter the wavelength of the radiation. The Sun's heat reaches Earth
through radiation across the vacuum of space. Thermal energy can travel
through empty space as radiation (travelling as electromagnetic waves,
infrared).
Specific Heat Capacity (in more detail)
Specific heat capacity (c) is a material's inherent property that tells you how much
energy (heat) is required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram (kg) of that material
by 1 degree Celsius (°C). It essentially reflects a substance's ability to store thermal
energy.

c = Q / (m ΔT)

where:

● c (specific heat capacity) is the material's property we're trying to find (units:
J/kg°C or cal/g°C).
● Q (change in energy) is the amount of heat energy transferred to or from the
material (units: Joules, J or calories, cal).
● m (mass) is the mass of the material (units: kg or g).
● ΔT (change in temperature) is the difference in temperature of the material
(units: °C).

Latent Heat
Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released during a change of state of a
substance (solid to liquid, liquid to gas, and vice versa) without a change in
temperature. This hidden energy (potential energy) is used to overcome the
intermolecular forces holding the particles together in a specific state.
There are two types of latent heat:

● Latent heat of fusion: The energy absorbed when a solid changes to a liquid
(melting) or released when a liquid changes to a solid (freezing).
● Latent heat of vaporisation: The energy absorbed when a liquid changes to
a gas (boiling) or released when a gas changes to a a liquid (condensation).

Heating curves shows specific heat capacity, latent heat and temperature
relationship
Task: check your understanding in all the physics units above
1. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. What is the symbol used to
represent density?

(a) D
(b) m
(c) v
(d) ρ (rho)

2. An object made of steel has a higher density than an object made of wood. If
both objects have the same volume, which object will have a larger mass?

(a) The steel object

(b) The wood object
(c) They will have the same mass
(d) Impossible to determine

3. You measure the mass of a block of aluminium to be 2 kg and its volume to be

0.004 m³. What is the density of the aluminium block?

(a) 8 kg/m³
(b) 0.0008 kg/m³
(c) 0.5 kg/m³
(d) 500 kg/m³
Pressure
4. Pressure is defined as force exerted per unit area. What is the SI unit for
pressure?

(a) Newton (N)

(b) Metre (m)
(c) Pascal (Pa)
(d) Kilogram (kg)
5. A deep-sea diver experiences a large pressure compared to someone
standing on the surface. Why does the pressure increase?

(a) There are more water molecules below the surface.

(b) The water molecules become denser at depth.
(c) Gravity weakens with depth.
(d) The temperature of the water increases.

6. Pascal's principle states that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is

transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid. What does this principle help
explain?
(a) The buoyancy of objects in water
(b) Why air pressure decreases with altitude
(c) How sound waves travel through air
(d) The operation of hydraulic brakes
Motion
7. According to Newton's first law of motion, what will happen to an object at rest
if no unbalanced force acts on it?

(a) It will begin to move in a straight line.

(b) It will slow down.
(c) It will remain at rest.
(d) It will speed up.

8. A car accelerates from rest to a speed of 20 m/s in 5 seconds. What is the

acceleration of the car?

(a) 4 m/s²
(b) 0.25 m/s²
(c) 100 m/s²
(d) 5 m/s²

9. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This statement
describes which law of motion?

(a) Newton's first law

(b) Newton's second law
(c) Newton's third law
(d) The law of universal gravitation
Forces
10. When two objects collide and stick together, what is the total momentum after
the collision compared to the total momentum before?

(a) It is less than the initial momentum.

(b) It is greater than the initial momentum.
(c) It is conserved (remains the same).
(d) It depends on the masses of the objects.

11. An object is suspended by two strings at different angles. Which of the

following forces will NOT affect the tension in the strings?

(a) The weight of the object

(b) The angle of the first string
(c) The angle of the second string
(d) The mass of the object

12. A gymnast jumps on a trampoline. What happens to the centre of gravity of

the gymnast as they jump?

(a) It remains constant.

(b) It moves down towards the trampoline.
(c) It moves upwards.
Moments
13. A seesaw is balanced when two children of equal mass sit at equal distances
from the pivot point. If one child moves closer to the pivot point, what will
happen?

(a) The seesaw will remain balanced.

(b) The side with the heavier child will go down.
(c) The side with the lighter child will go down.
(d) Nothing will happen.

Energy & power

14. Which of the following is NOT a form of energy?

(a) Chemical potential energy

(b) Thermal energy
(c) Magnetic energy
(d) Elastic potential energy

15. What is the formula to calculate gravitational potential energy?

(a) GPE = mass x height

(b) GPE = mass x height x acceleration due to gravity
(c) GPE = mass x height x gravitational field strength
(d) GPE = mass x gravitational field strength

16. How does kinetic energy change as an object falls towards the ground?

(a) It decreases
(b) It remains constant
(c) It increases
(d) It fluctuates
17. Which of the following is a measure of how well a machine converts input
energy into useful output energy?

(a) Power
(b) Efficiency
(c) Work done
(d) Velocity

18. What is the primary mode of thermal energy transfer responsible for air
circulation in a heated room?

(a) Conduction
(b) Convection
(c) Radiation
(d) Insulation

19. What property reflects a substance's ability to store thermal energy?

(a) Thermal conductivity

(b) Specific heat capacity
(c) Thermal expansion coefficient
(d) Latent heat

20. What type of latent heat is involved when a liquid changes to a gas?

(a) Latent heat of fusion

(b) Latent heat of vaporisation
(c) Latent heat of condensation
(d) Latent heat of sublimation