3/15/2014

Chapter 2(Part 1)
Boolean Algebra and Logic
Gates
0306201: Digital Logic Design
Faculty of Science and Information Technology (FSIT)
Zarqa University (ZU)
Prof. Musbah M. Aqel

Binary Variables

Binary variables take on one of two values.

The two binary values have different names:

1/0

High (H)/Low (L)

True (T)/False (F)

On/Off

Yes (Y)/No (N)

We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.

Variable identifier examples:

A, B,C, x,y, z

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Logical Operations

Logical operators operate on binary values and
binary variables.

The three basic logical operations are:

AND

OR

NOT

AND is denoted by a dot (·).

OR is denoted by a plus (+).

NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single quote
mark (') after, or (~) before the variable.

Boolean Functions

Binary variable = Boolean expression

A Boolean expression is formed with

Binary variables

Binary constant

Binary operators OR and AND

Unary operator NOT

Parentheses

Examples

F = a’•b + b’

G = x•(y+z’)

H=x+1

Boolean function value/output can be either 0 or 1

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Operator Precedence

The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean
Expression is

Parentheses
Highest Priority

NOT

AND

OR
Lowest Priority

Examples

x y' + z

(x y + z)'

Logic Circuits and Boolean Expressions

Boolean Expressions (Functions) are fully defined by
their truth tables.

Each Boolean function (expression) can be
implemented by a digital logic circuit which consists of
logic gates.

Variables of the function correspond to signals in the logic
circuit,

Operators of the function are converted into corresponding
logic gates in the logic circuit.

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Example
Truth Table
x y z F Boolean Function
•
F = x’ + y z’
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
Logic Circuit Diagram
0 1 1 1 z
1 0 0 0
y
1 0 1 0
x F
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Boolean expressions, truth tables and logic circuit
diagrams describe the same function!

Truth tables are unique; expressions and logic circuits
diagram are not. This gives flexibility in implementing
functions.
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More Examples

Consider the following Boolean functions:

F1 = x + y'z

F2 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F3 = x y' + x' z

1. Construct the truth table for each function.

2. Implement / transform each functions into logic circuit
diagram.

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Truth Tables

The truth table of 23 entries for the three functions

x y z F1 F2 F3
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0

Two Boolean expressions may specify the same
function.

Truth tables for F2 and F3 are identical  same function
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Logic Circuit Diagrams

Implementation of the three functions with logic gates

F3 is more economical (less components) compared to F2

F1 = x + y'z

F2 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F3 = x y' + x' z

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Boolean Algebra

VERY nice mathematical system used to specifying and
manipulating (simplifying) Boolean functions.

Developed by George Boole in 1854

We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for
designing and analyzing digital systems!

Terminology:

Literal: A variable or its complement

Product term: literals connected by •

Sum term: literals connected by +

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Algebra

What is algebra?

Mathematical system consisting of

Set of elements

Set of operators

Axioms or postulates

Why is it important?

Defines rules of “calculations”

Example: arithmetic on natural numbers

Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,…}

Operator: +, –, *

Axioms: associative, distributive, closure, identity elements, etc.

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Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

A two-valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of
elements, B = {0, 1}, with rules for the two binary
operations + and . As shown in the following operators
tables.
AND OR
x y x.y x y x+y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

From the truth tables of the AND and OR operations shown

above, we can derive some basic postulates. These
postulates can be easily verified by showing that they are
valid for both possible values of X (0 and 1).
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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

1. Closure: that is the structure is closed with respect of the
two operators, since the result of each operation is either 0
or 1 and 0,1 ∈ Β.
AND OR
x y x· y x y x+y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

2. Identity elements:
(a) x + 0 = x → 0 + 0 = 0; 1 + 0 = 1
(b) x· 1 = x → 0· 1 = 0; 1· 1 = 1
There are two identity elements, 0 for + and 1 for ·
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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

3. Commutative: with respect to + and ·
(a) x+y = y+x (b) x·y = y·x
4. Distributive: · over + and + over ·
(a) x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) (b) x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)

x y z y+z x · (y+z) x·y x·z (x·y)+(x·z)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

5. Complement:

(a): x + x’ = 1

(b): x · x’ = 0

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Duality

The principle of duality is an important concept.
This says that if an expression is valid in Boolean
algebra, the dual of that expression is also valid.

To form the dual of an expression, replace all +
operators with . operators, all . operators with +
operators, all ones with zeros, and all zeros with
ones.

Form the dual of the expression
x + (yz) = (x + y)(x + z)

Following the replacement rules…
x(y + z) = xy + xz

Take care not to alter the location of the
parentheses if they are present.
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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

Postulates define some rules
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1 (b) x·x’=0

Need more rules to modify algebraic expressions

Theorems are derived from postulates

What is a theorem?

A formula or statement that is derived from postulates
(or other proven theorems)

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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

1. Theorem 1, Idempotent:

(a): x + x = x

(b): x · x = x

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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

2. Theorem 2, Inverse:

(a): x + 1 = 1

(b): x · 0 = 0

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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

3. Theorem 3, Involution:
(x’)’ = x

This can be proven by the NOT operation as shown

below:

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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

4. Theorem 4, Associative:
(a): x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (b): x(y · z) = (x · y)z

Proof of Theorem 4(a) by means of truth table.

Proof of Theorem 4(b) by duality
x y z y+z x+ (y+z) x+y (x+ y)+ z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

5. Theorem 5, DeMorgan’s:
(a): (x + y)’ = x’ · y’ (b): (x · y)’ = x’ + y’

Proof of Theorem 5(a) and Theorem 5(b) by means of truth table.

x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y)’ x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

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Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra

6. Theorem 6, Absorption:
(a): x + x y = x (b): x( x + y) = x

Proof of Theorem 6(a) by means of truth table.

Proof of Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality

x y xy x+xy
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

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Boolean Algebra Postulates & Theorems

Identity
Complement
Idempotent
Inverse

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Algebraic Manipulation

To minimize Boolean expressions

Literal: a primed or unprimed variable (an input to a gate)

Term: an implementation with a gate

The minimization of the number of literals and the number of
terms → a circuit with less equipment

Examples: Simplify the following Boolean expressions to a
minimum number of literals.
1. x(x'+y) = xx' + xy (by post. 4(a) distributive)
= 0+xy (by post. 5(b) complement )
= xy + 0 (by post. 3(a) commutative)
= xy (by post. 2(a) identity)
2. x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) (by post. 4(b) distributive)
= 1 (x+y) (by post. 5(a) complement)
= (x + y) 1 (by post. 3(b) commutative)
= x+y (by post. 2(b) identity)
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Examples (Cont’d)
3. (x+y)(x+y') = x(x+y’) + y(x+ y’)
= xx+xy’+xy+yy' (by post. 4(a) distributive)
= x+ xy’+ xy + yy’ (by Th. 1(b) idempotent)
= x+ xy’ + xy + 0 (by post. 5(b) complement)
= x(1+y’+ y)
= x( 1 + 1) (by post. 5(a) complement)
=x1
=x (by post. 2(b) complement)

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Examples (Cont’d)
4. (x+y)(x’+y)(y’+z) = x’(x+y)+y(x+y)(y’+z)
= x’x+x’y+xy+yy(y’+z) (by post. 4(a) distributive)
= 0+x’y+xy+yy(y’+z) (by post. 5(b) complement)
= x’y+xy+yy(y’+z) (by post. 2(a) identity)
= x’y +xy + y(y’+z) (by Th. 1(b) idempotent)
= y(x’+x+y)(y’+z)
= y(1+y)(y’+z) (by post. 5(b) complement)
= y(1)(y’+z) (by Th. 2 (a) inverse)
= y(y’+z) (by post. 2(b) identity)
= yy’+yz (by post. 4(a) distributive)
= 0+yz (by post. 5(b) complement)
= yz (by post. 2(a) identity)

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Examples (Cont’d)
5. (A+B’C)’ = A’(B’C)’ (by Th. 5(a) DeMorgan)
= A’((B’)’+C’) (by Th. 5(b) DeMorgan)
= A’(B+C’) ( by Th.3 involution)

6. ABC+AB’(A’C’)’ = ABC+AB’((A’)’+(C’)’) (by Th. 5(b) DeMorgan)

= ABC+AB’(A+C) (by Th.3 involution)
= ABC+AAB’+AB’C (by post. 4(a) distributive)
= ABC+AB’+AB’C (by Th. 1(b) idempotent)
= AC(B+B’)+AB’
= AC+AB’ (by post.5(a) complement)
= A(C+B’)

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Simplification Using Boolean Algebra

AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C)

(by post. 4(a) distributive) A

AB+AB+AC+BB+BC

(by Th.1(b) idempotent) B

AB+AB+AC+B+BC C AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C)

(by Th.1(a) idempotent)

AB+AC+B+BC

(by Th.6(a) absorption)

AB+AC+B B B+AC

(by Th.6(a) absorption)

B+AC A
C

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Consensus Theorem
1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)

Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

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Complement of a Function

The complement of the function F (F’) is obtained by
interchanging AND and OR operators and
complementing each literal.

F = (A+B+C)

F’ can be derived by DeMorgan's theorem

F’ = (A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X
= A'X' by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A‘ (B+C)' substitute B+C = X
= A‘ (B'C') by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'B'C' by theorem 4(b) (associative)

Generalizations:

(A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'

(ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

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Examples

Example 1

F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.

F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')' (x'y'z)' = (x+y'+z) (x+y+z')

F2 = x(y' z' + yz).

F2' = [x(y'z'+yz)]' = x' + (y'z'+yz)' = x' + (y'z')' (yz)‘
= x' + (y+z) (y'+z')
= x' + yz‘+y'z

Example 2: a simpler procedure

Take the dual of the function and complement each literal
1. F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y'+z)(x+y+z') = F1'
2. F2 = x(y' z' + yz).
The dual of F2 is x+(y'+z') (y+z).
Complement each literal: x'+(y+z)(y' +z') = F2' 33

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