Chapter 1 Instrumentation Fundamental 1.1 INTRODUCTION Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameters such as temperature, pressure, level, low and supplying a signal that is proportional to the measured parameter to provide the indication or automatic control. The perfection of the instrument depends upon the measurement. There are two basic method of measurement. (Direct Method : Length measurement, e.g, all physical dimensions. (ii) Indirect Method : To determine the quality of product, ¢g., milk, bacteria dimination in milk. There are three or four phases in most of the measuring system, each phases being made up with a distinct component or group of components which perform required and definite steps in measurement. 1.2 CRITERIA OF SELECTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The following factors to be considered for selection of a measuring instrument : @ How accurate is the measurement to be made, i.e, the accuracy from the measuring instrument. When the final data required, ie., at the time of taking the measurements or latter on. The cost criterion, i.e., how expensive can the measuring process be? In what form the data should be displayed, i.c., indicating, recording, integrating or photographic. (%) Whether quantity to be measured has constant value or is ita time variant? If time variant then whether variation is linear, parabolic or some other type? 13 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENTS The static characteristics of an instrument are in general those that must be considered when the instrument is used to measure a condition not varying with time. The static characteristics of an instruments are = @ AccuracyInstrumentation and Process Con, ro Gi) Reproducibility (iil). Sensitivity (iv) Static error ©) Drife (vi) Dead zone 1.3.1 Accuracy Iris the degree of correctness with which a measuring means yields the true value referred to accepeey engineering standards, such as standard meter. Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount which the resule differs from the true values. It is influenced by the factors like static error, dynamic error, reproducibility and dead zone. 1.3.2 Reproducibility Is the degree of closeness which a given value may be repeatedly measure. It may-be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift, 1.3.3 Sensitivity Itis defined as the ratio of output response to a specified change in input. 1.3.4 Static Error Icis the difference between the true value of a quantity not changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument. Instrument reading = True value + Scale error For plus static error the instrument read high and for minus static error the instruments read low. 1.3.5 Drift Ic is an insidious quality in industrial instrument because it is rarely apparent and must be carefully guarded against by continuous inspection and maintenance. 1.3.6 Dead Zone Ie isthe largest range of values of measured variable to which the instruments does not responds. This some times called dead spot and hysteresis. Ie isthe range within which variable can vary without being detected. Dead zone usually occurs with friction in an indicating or recording instrument, particu!” the later. It may also be found in certain kinds of mechanisms that can only indicate small and discre® changes in value of a measured variable. 1.4 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INSTRUMENT Instrument rarely responds instantancously to change in the measured variable. Instead, they exhibit? characteristic slowness or sluggishness due to such things as mas, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitan exc. Furthermore, pure delay in time is often encountered where the instrument wait for some reactio™ to take place,Instrumentation FundamentaJ—— The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element to some known and predetermined variation in measured quantity. The most common variations are : (Step change (ii) Linear change ii) Sinusoidal change (iv) Speed of response (W) Fidelity (vi) Measuring lag 1.4.1 Step Change Ie is a change in which the primary clement is subjected to an instantancous and finite change in measured variable. 1.4.2 Linear Change Ie is a change in which the primary clement is following a measured variable, changing linearly with time 1.4.3, Sinusoidal Change Ie is a change in which the primary element is following measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude. The physical conditions of imposing these changes on an instrument may cause great difficulties. 1.4.4 Speed of Response Tis the quickness of an instrument to read the measured variable. 1.4.5 Fidelity It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in measured variable without dynamic error. 1.4.6 Measuring Lag Icisa retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured quality. 1.5 TRANSDUCER Modern technology requires electrical instrumentation, not only in electrical works but also practically in all other kinds of works. Most of the non-electrical applications, such as mechanical or thermal problems requires a device to convert the quantity or phenomenon to be observed into a voltage or current, which can then be observed on an oscilloscope, read on a meter or recorded on a chart. Such a deviceis called transducer. It is defined as a device actuated by power from one system and supplying power to another system, eg, thermocouple is actuated by power in the form of heat and it supplies electrical power to a control or measuring circuit. Vatious type of transducers are available for use. They can be classified according to their function. Most of them are commonly used with electronics devices such as amplifiers. Some common transducers are :Instrumentation and Process Conia pores ce ee eee ee (i) Pressure transducer (ii) Level transducer (iii). Velocity transducer ie ries eee th varaon ofa quantity to thos of another. For example, Sy ee eer ayer generate a electrical signal ay. eee Ronee shea ar eee monitoring the thousands of everyday a Sao ental ined to measure he variables such as fd fw, le asad, Henc, pressure senso alternatively led pressure transducer or pressure anette The of the pressure sensor depends upon the technology in design and its performances, Some Pressure sensors are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for capturing very high speed change in pressure, €g» combustion pressure in gas turbine. water level and 1.5.2. Level Transducer 1.5.3 Velocity Transducer Velocity sensor usually acts asa transducer and generate the electrical si imposed. This information passed on to the VIC (Welocity Indicati dlectrical signal o pressure. Depending on the press fluid to pass through with a required velocity. Velo ignal as a function of the velocity ing Controller) and convert the ‘ure pneumatic control valve work and allow the city transducer generally used for flow conrel in 1.6 INDICATOR An indicating instrument j 1¢ of the variable has record is of no consequence. Indicators are of three types: () Eccentric scale indicator Concentric scale indicator ) Linear scale indicatorInstrumentation Fundamental Scale. Fig. 1.1. Eccentric scale indicator. 1.6.2 Concentric Scale Indicator The concentric scale indicator is used for nearly all kinds of instruments. The scale length is usually about 20 inch, in the precision type instruments. In simple dial type pressure gauge thermometers the scale length may be as small as 2 inch. A simple concentric scale indicator is shown in Fig. 1.2. 1.6.3. Linear Scale Fig. 1.2 Concenttic scale indicator. The linear scale is commonly used only on the potentiometer resistance thermometer type instrument. For such instruments an indicator is made simply by omitting the strip chart, chart drive an pen. Galvanometer type millivolt meters employ a linear scale in a curved from. The use of the various indicating instrument is generally restricted, because a free choice of scale type is not possible. For readability there can be no doube that the concentric scale generally offers the greatest scale length in the smallest space. 1.7 RECORDER Modern industrial plant relies on instrumentation as a regular part of its production equipment. In the vast majority, instrumentation is more elaborate, and in an increasing number of processes, complete instrumentation is a necessity without that plant can not operate efficiently. A whole new field is gradually taking shape, and the instrumentation engineer is becoming an important factor in the engineering of newly designed manufacturing process. Process instrumentation, whether it is the temperature control of milk, the operation control ‘means fora distillery or the control means for a large steel plant is accomplished largely by experience. A recording instrument should be employed when a permanent record of the variable is desirable. A record is useful for three reasons : () The process operator may refer to the instrument to observe the trend of variable asa guide to process operation. (ii) The record may be useful in locating trouble on the job. (iil) The record may be required for reference to past performances. A recording instrument should not be used when any of the foregoing functions are not required and when a simple indicator will suffice. Obviously recording instruments are more expensive ands—___insrumentaton and Process Cony Fequire more maintenance than indicating types. Furthermore, a recording instrument without achay, in place is not useful as an indicator. Industrial instruments of the recording type employ two different styles of recording charts ; (Circular recording chart (ii) Sevip recording chart 1.7.1 Circular Recording Chart The circular recording chart is used on almost every kind of industrial instrument like flow, pressure, temperature and level. This chart is based on essentially on polar co-ordinates with the exceptions thay the zero is moved away from the geometric centre and the time lines are segments of an arc instead of straight lines. The chart is clamped at the geometric centre and rotates about the centre. The period of rotation of the circular chart is usually 8 hr, 24 hr or 7 days, although neatly any speed of rotation can be obtained by choosing a properly geared synchronous motor. A simple circular recording chart is shown in Fig. 1.3. Indicating pointer: Recording pointer Calibration scale Indicating scale Time tine Fig. 1.3 Circular recording chart. Circular recording chare are made in basically two sizes 8 inch and 12 inch diameter. The larger chart is by far the most common in industrial work and the small char is used in recording ambient temperature and humidity and also in recording temperature of heated vats where accuracy of readingis not essential. Advantages : ‘The entire record of one process period is available at a glance. Gi) Long chare length is available for one process period. (iil) Tis easily filed for future reference. Disadvantages : (i) Time values towards the centre are difficult to read. (ii) The chart must be changed once every process period. Circular chart is most advahtageously used to record a mildly fluctuating variable at about 50% of scale span where the process period is not greater than 24 hrs, ‘The circular charts are printed under carefully controlled temperature and humidity conditions on high grade paper. Humidity variation under actual use causes the paper to expand and contract. Since the fibres inthe chart to expand or contact to elliptical shape, the error in calibration is very small and is not corrected or compensated.ipatientanod EUineamerigy set = = 1.7.2 Strip Recording Chart The strip recording chart is generally used on the potentiometer type instrument or on the resistance thermometer. The chart is driven from the supply roll to the reroll by a synchronous motor. The speed of the paper is usually given in inches per hr, 1, 2 and 4 inch per hris very common. Speed upto 20 inch per hr are available. A simple strip chart recorder is shown in Fig. 1.4. Indicating scale i ft2 { —————— nctrument por Supply © roll Calibration tine Reroll © Fig. 1.4 Strip chart recorder. The strip recording chart used with the recording pyrometer and resistance thermometer type instrument has rectangular coordinates and a width of approximately 10 inch. Strip recording charts for galvanometer type instruments are not so common in recordings. These are usually about 6 inch in wideh and the time lines consists of arc segments instead of straight lines because the pen on such instrument is arranged to move in arc. Advantages : () _Iedoes not require frequent changing. (ii) Long process period are easily recorded. (iil). Readability is same all values of scale span. Disadvantages : (A limited length of the chart is visible. (ii) Its difficult to file and not easily used for reference. “The strip chart is most advantageously used to record a variable changing between wide limits and to records a variable over long process period. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.1 Explain the fundamental properties of a good measuring instrument, 1.2 Explain the static characteristics of an instrument. 1.3 _ Explain the dynamic characteristics of an instrument. 1.4 What are the basic requirements of recorders? 15 Write the working principle of strip chart recorder. 1.6 Write the working principle of circular chart recorder. 17 Explain dynamic accuracy.Chapter 2 Pressure Measurements 2.1 INTRODUCTION Pressure is the force acting on unit area and is one of the important process variable. Usually pressure is expressed under the following names : @ Absolute pressure (i) Differential pressure (ii) Gauge pressure (iv) Vacuum pressure 2.1.1 Absolute Pressure Itis the total pressure exerted by the fluid. It is designated by P,. 2.1.2. Differential Pressure I is the algebraic difference between the two pressures. 2.1.3 Gauge Pressure Ic is the special case of differential pressure where one pressure is atmospheric. It is the algebraic difference between the total pressure exerted by the fluid and the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. It is represented by the equation Py = Pa — Pac +21) where, Py = Gauge pressure B, = Absolute pressure Py = Atmospheric pressure 2.1.4 Vacuum Pressure Icis the another case of differential pressure and is defined as P, =Pum —P «-(2.2) where, — P, = Vacuum pressure Pym, = Atmospheric pressure P,, = Absolute pressureto—___ instrumentation and Process Cont Negative vacuum and positive gauge pressure are identical. Pressure is normally expressed a kg/em? or pound per square inch (Psi). It can also be c expressed a5 multiplication of liquid coking height and its density. In SI unic itis expressed as Nim >. P=pgh +23) where, P= Pressure, Nim? p= Density of liquid, kg/m? g = Acceleration due to gravicy, m/s? ‘f= Liquid column height, m ‘One standard atmosphere may be expressed as : 1 standard atm = 760 mmHg at 25°C 9.92 mmHg at 32°F 0.33 kglem 4.223 Psi 013 x10° N/m? 2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ‘The pressure measuring instrument may be classified as : (Instrument which uses liquid column (ii) Instrument which uses elastic pressure clement (ii) Instrument which uses electrical devices (iv) Instrument which uses electronic devices. 2.2.1 Instrument which Uses Liquid Column These are generally called as manometers. These are the simplest form of pressure measuring devices. Here pressure is measured in terms of head of liquid column (4) and is converted to pressure by multiplying density (p). It is represented by the equation P=p hy kglem? (2.4) ‘Manometers are normally limited to measurement of differential pressure upto 0.2 kg/em?. The instrument which uses liquid column are as follows : (i) U-tube manometer (ii) Inclined tube manometer i) Well type manometer (iv) Cistern barometer (v) Fixed cistern barometer (vi) Mcleod gauge (i) U-Tube Manometer Icis the simplest of all the manometer. It consists of a U shaped glass tube and scale attached to measure the difference of liquid in the two limbs. A simple U-tube manometer is shown in Fig. 2.1.Pressure Measurements A, Pp High pressure | {tow pressure ') h r h “Scan U-tube —-f -—Manometi quid Fig. 2.1 U-tube manometer, When the two different pressure sources are applied to two limbs, the differential pressure is given in terms of difference in liquid column height ‘s' which can be converted to pressure units in kg/em > by multiplying density in corresponding units. fone limb is open to atmosphere it gives gauge pressure. If one limb is evacuated and sealed it gives absolute pressure. i (ii) Inclined Tube Manometer In this case one limb of the manometer is inclined to the vertical one. A simple inclined tube manometer is shown in Fig. 2.2. ieee Vertical limb Indicated limb ‘Manometrc liquid Fig. 2.2 Inclined tube manometer. This is used when the pressure changes are very small. Here, a small vertical height is measured in terms of comparatively larger inclined distance /. It is expressed by the equation h=h sino. (2.5) Pp, Pp (iil) Well Type Manometer High pressure | { Low pressure In this case the high pressure limb of the | manometer is connected to large reservoir. This design permits the pressure to be measure by measuring the rise in the level of narrow tube. A simple well type Limb manometer is shown in Fig. 2.3. th wel The cross-sectional area of the narrow tube is very small compared to the reservoir. Hence, the level change in the reservoir is very less compared to the narrow tube, Narrow limb Manometrc liquid Fig. 2.3 Well type manometer.Instrumentation and Process Contra 4 Vertical tube (iv) Cistern Barometer : Ieis an absolute pressure gauge, used for measuring the atmospheric pressure. A simple cistern barometer is shown in Fig. 2.4, et Ie can be considered as a special type manometer where the narrow vertical limb is evacuated and sealed. (v) Fixed Cistern Barometer Its used to measure gauge pressure. In this type the liquid sald bell isthe weight of which is supported by a spring. A typical fixed cistern barometer is shown in Fig. 2.5. The applied pressure rises the bell and is counteracted by spring tension. The motion of the bell is converted into circular motion of the pointer which is moving on a circular scale, is calibrated in terms of pressure. ' Applied pressure Fig. 2.5 Fixed cistem barometer. (vi) Mcleod Gauge 2 This is a device used to measu used here is Boyle's law re very low pressure, ic, 0.1 micron to 50 mmHg. The principle RV, =PiVy (2.6) gas V; whose unknown pressure Aknown volume of, is compressed to a known pressure P, and volume V>. Then unknown pressure F, may be calculated using the equation Py; Ra 1 % ++(2.7) At first mercury is filled upto the cut off reference point which is to be determined, The with gas. A simple Mcleod ga Point and the unknown pressure is connected at the capillary above the cutoff point and bulb B is filled up tuge is shown in Fig. 2.6, Py Unknown pressure > Reference point Fig. 26 Mcleod gauge.Pressure Measurements Then mercury is forced upto zero level in the reference capillary and the unknown pressure F, is calculated using Boyle’s law. BY, =PyV> --(2.6) where, A, = Unknown pressure + ah,, Initial volume of the gas intrapped V = Volume of the bulb + Capillary tube upto the bulb from cut-off point Area of cross-section of capillary A, +h, Final amplified pressure ab, Volume of the gas in the capillary RW +ab,) =(R +h) ab (2.8) RV + Bab, = Rah +ah™ RY + Rab, - Rah =ab? BWV +ath, -#) = ah? But, (h-hh ‘ BV + ah) =ab? --(2.9) V>>...ah Therefore, ah, can be neglected. ah? R= Sve -+-(2.10) 2.2.2 Instrument which Uses Elastic Pressure Element These pressure gauge have elastic element that convert pressure signal into proportional mechanical displacement. Hence, it is also called transducer. The instrument which uses clastic pressure elements are as follows : (Bourdon pressure gauge Diaphragm pressure gauge Bellows pressure gauge (3) Bourdon Pressure Gauge Bourdon pressure gauge consists of a thin tube of clliptical cross-section sent into an arc ofa circle lengthwise fixed at one end of source which accept the applied Pinion pressure. Other end is free and closed. A typical Bourdon goyeen ube» | pressure gauge is shown in Fig. 2.7. \\ When the pressure is applied the oval shaped tube _S®0" tend to become circular with subsequent increase in the radius of the circular arc. The movement of the free end of \ the tube is transmitted to a section through an adjustable | connecting link. The sector is in a mesh with a pinion anda fixed pointer which rotate over a calibrated scale to give an Fig. 2.7 Bourdon pressure gauge. Socket* Insirumentaton and Process coy, ee ee ty indication of pressure. As the reference pressure in this case surrounding the Bourdon tube isi atmospheric, the pressure measured is usually gauge pressure. Requirements of the tube material : ; : : (i) Temusebe ard enough o withstand the applied presure without any part of tbeing sas above the limit of proportionality. ti Te must be sufficiently stable to maintain its calibration indefinitely. Gil) Te muse be immune to corrosion from the fuid inside the tube and from atmosphey al outside it. (iv) Te must be easy to fabricate. Gauge should be selected with a full scale pressure range of approximately twice the norm operating pressure and should not exceed 75% of the full scale. Some typical tube material and jn pressure range is given in Table 2.1. ‘Table 2.1 : Material construction of bourdon tube. S.No. Material Range (kg/cm?) 1. [Phosphor bronze 1-70 2. [Berryllium copper 30-350 3. Alloy steel 650 ~ 5500 4, |Stainless steel 2-70 5.__|Monel 70-1350 There are some special type of Bourdon tube where Bourdon element is wound as helix or spiral. ‘Helix : It is a type of Bourdon element where the Bourdon tube is wound in the. form of a helix to increase the tip movement. The design transmits only the circular component of the tip movement to open arm which is directly proportional to the pressure change. Spiral : It is also a modification of Bourdon clement used widely in industry. It is a thin walled tube flattened at both ends and is formed to spiral shape. The spiral arrangement provides larger movement to the free end which used for recording with suitable material. This type can be used t0 ‘measure pressure in the range 0.7 to 260 kg/cm. As no sector and pinion are required, hence friction losses are reduced.” i) Diaphragm Pressure Gauge Diaphragm is a circular element made of thin ductile metal which can be supported and the surface is fiee to move on applying force. The face of the diaphragm can be dished, flat or corrugated depending on strength and deflection desired. Some different faces of diaphragm are shown in Fig, 28. Sealers (a) Dishea (b) Flat (6) Corrugated Fig. 2.8 Diaphragm faces,Pressure Measurements 15 In high precision instruments the diaphragm are used in pair back to back in the form of capsules and forming a battery of several capsules. A simple diaphragm gauge is shown in Fig, 2.9. Applied pressure 4 Diaphragm, Restraining spring 2 1 0 Scale a 2 Fig. 2.9 Diaphragm pressure gauge. ‘The corrugated diaphragm will have 4 times the deflections of flat diaphragm subjected to the same pressure and its deflection pressure curve is linear in character. A typical material and its pressure range is given in Table 2.2 Table 2.2 : Material construction of diaphragm. S.No. Material Range (kg/cm) 1. [Brass 035-15 Requirements of diaphragm gauge : (@ Dimension of the diaphragm and the total load applied on it must be compatible with physical properties of the materials used. (ii) The flexibilicy must be large to provide the required sensitivity. ii) The dial scale should be calibrated to account for the accuracy. (iv). The elastic modulus should not change within the working temperature. (¥) Output should be linear. (iii) Bellows Pressure Gauge ‘The metallic bellows isa series of circular part so formed or joined that they can be expanded or contracted by the application of pressure or vacuum but not appreciable in other direction. A simple bellows pressure ‘gauge is shown in Fig. 2.10. By increasing the number of convolution in the bellows the axial movement can be increased. Increasing the diameter of the bellows will increase the force fora given pressure and makes the instrument more sensitive pressure gauge. Fixed end —=S en Applied pressure Fig. 2.10 Bellows pressure gauge.16 Instrumentation and Process Con ro, Requirement of bellows material : (i) Strength of pressure to be measured. Hysteresis. Fatigue, ie, the cycles that will constitute the normal life of units. Cortosion resistance of the material or means of keeping the corrosive contaminants fry reacting the bellows. (@) Ease of fabrication, i. the possibilty of making the bellows our of the material chat sis the condition 1 and 2. 2.2.3 Instrument which Uses Electrical Devices Icmakes the use of the following properties. The temperature of a wire through which electric current flows depend on : The magnitude of current. (i) The rate at which heat is dissipated by conduction, convection and radiation. If the current is kept constant then the temperature will depend on the rate at which heat is dissipated, which in term depend on the conductivity of media. Conductivity is again depend on the density of the media. Ifthe pressure is reduced then conductivity is reduced and wire become hotter for the same current. ‘Thus we can conclude that for a given current the temperature of the wire directly dependent on the pressure of the surrounding medium. By measuring temperature of the wire or some measurable property dependent on temperature of the wire, with suitable calibration we can know the pressure of the medium. The instrument which uses electrical devices for the measurement of pressure are as follows : (i) Pirani gauge (ii) Thermocouple gauge (@ Pirani Gauge Principle used here is that the pressure is dependent on the temperature of the wire ifthe currentis constant. But change in temperature changes the resistance of the wire. A simple pirani gauge is shown in Fig. 2.11. emt t Temperature compensation cll fal To pressure source l fe Measuring cal Fegulated power supply Fig. 2.11 Pirani gauge.Pressure Measurements, 7 The open ended tube is exposed to the vacuum to be measured. The closed off tube is sealed at a pressure lower than 1 micron and acts to compensate for temperature vatiations. The pirani gauge filament should not be used above 330°C. If organic vapour from grease, oil gasket materials are present in the system, at higher temperature decomposes organic vapours leaving a deposit on the filament causing a zero shift of calibration. The range is 20-1000 microns of Hg. (i) Thermocouple Gauge Ie consists of two platinum resistance coil kept in two identical cells, one is evacuated and sealed and other is connected to the pressure source. These coils are connected to a regulated power supply to heat it. When the coils are heated the presence of any gas in the cell cools the resistor below the corresponding temperature in the evacuated cell. A simple thermocouple gauge is shown in Fig. 2.12. Temperature ‘compensation cell ‘Transformer To pressure, =| el Measuring cell Fig. 2.12 Thermocouple gauge. The thermocouple attached at the middle of each resistor will develop an emf which is proportional to the temperature difference of these junction. ‘This emfin terms is proportional co the pressure. The pétentiometer which is used to measure the cemfs calibrated in terms of pressure. The range, merit and demerits of this gauge is same as that of the pirani gauge. 2.2.4 Instrument which Uses Electronic Devices Iemakes the use of following properties. Electron emitted at the cathode by the thermionic emission are. attracted towards the grid, pass through the grid and start toward the plate. Ions are formed by collision of the electrons with molecules of the gas present in the tube. The instrument which uses electronics devices for the measurement of pressure are as follows : (i) Hot filament ionization gauge (ii) Cold cathode ionization gauge (iii) Radio active ionization gauge {j) Hot Filament Ionization Gauge The hot filament ionization gauge is thermionic type. The tube is the form of triode, with cathode, grid and plate. The electrons emitted at the hot cathode by thermionic emission are attracted towards the grid. Because of the velocity of electron it start towards the plate. Ions are formed by the collision of the electrons with the molecules of the gas present in the tube. A typical hot filament ionization gauge is shown in Fig. 2.13.18 Instrumentation and Process o,, my —» Current indicating instrument Collector plate FES To pressure source <— aa Cathode. Filament current > _1;§ www] supply Fig, 2.13 Hot filament ionization gauge. rt erent regulator ‘The +ve ions are collected on the plate and as a current +ve ion current exists. The amount of io, current is proportional to the amount of gas present provided the electron current is constant. ‘The electron to grid is maintained by a grid current. The ion current is maintained by instrumen similar to the atomic balance potentiometer. This type of ionization gauge can not be used at pressure above 2 microns because of the probability of burning out the element. An ionization gauge in conjunction with a pirani gauge is used to measure absolute pressure above 2 microns. It can also be used for the measurement of absolute pressure of inert gases like 0, CO and H2. Gi) Cold Cathode Ionization Gauge It consists of two parallel flat plates as cathode and a cylindrical anode placed in between them. When a very high voltage is maintained between anode or cathode, the electrodes will discharge ion. A low pressure the probability of these electrode colliding with the molecules and ionizing them are ver less. And ir is quite possible that birth rates of new electrons of ionization is smaller than death rates of electron. To over come this difficulties the gauge is placed in between the poles ofan electromagnet that magnetic field is at right angles to the plates. A typical cold cathode ionization gauge is shown i Fig. 2.14. Magnetic field cathode Huit-@H fa] "esse" Sgr Prom — ren ‘Magnetic field cathode Fig. 2.14 Cold cathode ionization gauge. The magnetic field generated by clectromagnetic force the electron to move towards the anof® cylinder in a helical path. This increased path length of electrons correspondingly increases— ————19 Pressure Measurements — ‘opportunity of its encounter with molecules and ionize molecules of gas even though they are very few in number. This instrument may be used as leak detector. It has range ability 10~ to 10? mmHg. Radio Active Ionization Gauge Ifa source of radio active material is installed in che chamber (source), the alpha particles given off by the radio isotopes can ionize the gas molecules in the same way as the fast moving electrons could do in the thermionic gauge. Radio active source is placed in the air tight chamber. The emitted alpha particle will collide with the gas molecules to produce ions. The chamber is fed with DC source through partition insulation. The collector has —ve charge compared to the wall of the chamber. The +ve charged ions are attracted towards negatively charged ion collector, causing a current in the external circuit which can be amplified and measured in terms of pressure of the medium. The ionic current is of the order of 2107! amp/mmHg. It is very similar to the thermionic type with the following problem of thermionic gauge climinated : (i) The cathode can oxidize if appreciable amount of oxygen are present. i) The gases being analyzed may be dissociated because of the high temperature. (iii) The cathode may be attached by the gases or it may undergo undesirable chemical combination with them. The gauge of operation of radio active ionization gauge is 10~> to 10 microns of Hg. REVIEW QUESTIONS 2.1. Explain the working principle of U-tube and inclined tube manometer. 2.2. Classify the pressure measuring instruments. 2.3 How do you calculate the pressure drop when water is flowing in tubes by using manometer? 2.4 Describe the principle of operation of Mcleod gauge with neat sketch. 2.5. What's the relationship between pressure and liquid level measurement? What pressure will be created by a column of liquid 5 m high, if the density of the liquid is 5000 kg/m ?2 2.6 Why are the elastic element pressure gauge preferable to liquid column manometer in industry? ‘What materials are generally used for the clastic elements in pressure gauge? What characteristics should they posses? What is the range of operation of such pressure gauge? 2.7 Narrate the working of a pressure spring or bourdon tube pressure gauge. 2.8 Describe the working of a diaphragm pressure gauge with a neat sketch. 2.9 With a neat sketch explain the working of a bellows pressure gauge. 2.10 With the help of neat sketches explain the functioning and principle of operations of the following pressure measuring instruments : ( Pirani gauge (ii) Tonization gaugeChapter 3 Temperature Measurements 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘Temperature is the measurement of degree of hotness or coolness of a body. It is one of the most important variable in industrial processing, Primarily, because it is a fundamental condition characteristic of the thermal state of a body. In the case of industrial processes, its this thermal state that determines whether desired condition or not. As in certain chemical processes, the physical conditions of a manufactured product. Temperature and heat flow are related quantitatively by the law of thermodynamics which express the fact that heat flows of it own accord from a body at higher temperature to a body ata lower temperature. Ics therefore important in temperature measurement to remember that two bodies in intimate contact are at the same temperature only if there is no heat flow between them. Temperature measurement is based on the so called zeroth law of thermodynamics, which states that two bodies in thermal equilibrium with a third body is in thermal equilibrium with each other. ‘The SI unit for temperature is the base unit of thermodynamics temperature, namely the Kelvin, which is generally used in all calculation and specially for physico chemical purposes. Asa customary or practical unit, the degree celcius (°C) is retained. This is identical to the degree centigrade, the change in name being due to the fact that the grade and hence the centigrade has another meaning in some countries. ‘The degree celcius and degree Kelvin are identical units of temperature interval, since 0°C = 273K, then TC = T+ 273 K. If follows, therefore that temperature intervals or temperature differences are the same in both cases 3.2 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The various temperature measuring instruments are as follows : (Thermometer (ii) Bi-metallic thermometer (ii) Bourdon tube thermometer (iv) Thermocouple () Thermopiles (vi) Resistance thermometer (vii) PyrometergC ______Instrumentation and Process ¢ 3.2.1 Thermometer sure Te consists of a glass envelope, a responsive liquid normally mercury ere iii a Thy envelope there isa bulb and a capillary tube fused together. The liquid is filled in the a and a portion of the capillary. As the temperature of the thermomettic liquid increases, it expan and tse, the capillary. The level of liquid in the column rises to indicate iis erate of the medi surrounding the bulb. The scale may be marked directly on the capillary tube asin mos of laboratory or clinical type of thermometer. A simple mercury in glass thermometers shown in Fig. 3 the Expansion chamber: Bub ‘Thermometric liquid (Mercury) Fig. 3.1 Mercury in glass thermometer. Advantages : Following are the advantages of mercury in glass thermometer : (i) _Itis relatively low cost. (i) Simple in use, (iii) Easy of checking for physical damage. (iv) Absence of need for auxiliary power. Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of mercury in glass thermometer : (@ — Itis easily breakable, (i) Lack of adaptability to remove reading. (iii) Surface temperature can not be measured, (iv) Range of measurement is limited to 360°C. 3.2.2 Bi-metallic Thermometer The construction of a bimetallic strip clement provides a rough uneven surface yet accurate and simple device for the indication of temperature, A typical bimetallic thermometer is shown in Fig. 3.2. iF Low expansion metal Fig. 3.2 Bimetallic thermometer, Fixed end — Heat source. High expansion metal‘Temperature Measurements A bimetallic thermometer is composed of two strips of metal welded together, each strip made, fiom a metal having a different co“efficient of thermal expansion. When the strip is heated or cooled different expansion or contraction occurs causing the strip to bend. With one end of the strip is fixed the other end deflects in the direction proportional to temperature, square ofthe length and thickness. Ifthe strip of bimetal is wound into helix or spiral and one end fixed, the other end will rotate when heat is supplied. Then the angular velocity is proportional to the temperature change, length of the strip and thickness of the material. Invar (Iron 64% and Nickel 36%) is used as low expansion metal alloy and brass is used as high expansion metal alloy. Range : ~30 to 550°C. Generally thermometer of this type is not recommended for continuous use above 450°C. Accuracy : + 1% for low temperature and 2% for higher temperature, Changes in ambient temperature at the end do not seriously affect the accuracy. Uses : Bimetallic thermometer is commonly used whenever the industrial mercury in glass thermometer is employed, ‘Advantages : @ Thermal expansion is linear, (i) Percentage of error is very less. Disadvantages : (Spot reading, (ii) Stem of the thermometer must deep in fluid. 3.2.3. Bourdon Tube Thermometer The bourdon tube thermometer may be broadly classified as (i) Liquid filled thermometer i) Gas filled thermometer (iii) Vapor pressure thermometer (i) Liquid Filled Thermometer Ie works on the principle of thermal expansion of liquid. When the bulb is immersed in a heated substance, the liquid expands and causes the pressure spring to unwind. The movement is converted into circular movement of lever which moves on ascale. This scale is calibrated in terms of temperature. (ii) Gas Filled Thermometer Te works on the principle that if the volume is kept constant, pressure of a gas increases as the temperature is raised. From Charles law at constant volume, we have ALA ..G.1) T, Py where, 7; = Initial temperature Ty = Final temperature A, = Initial pressure Py = Final pressureae tnstrmertation an rca oy The system is filled with gas at high pressure so that the increase in the pressure for each temperature wll be more. The deflection of bourdon tube fs converted to circular movemeng gp. ‘on a scale which is calibrated in terms of temperature. Nitrogen is the gas often used because - ineraness. i i) (iii) Vapor Pressure Thermometer Unlike liquid filled and gas filled thermometer which depends on their volumetric ex theic operation, the vapour pressure thermometer depends on the partial pressure of the liquid y only partially filled the system. A typical vapour pressure bourdon tube thermometer is shoyn Fig. 3.3. Pointer — |— Bourdon spring Scalo—} buat! wo = pillary tube Fig. 3.3 Vapour pressure thermometer. }-—Chambor The property used here is the change in vapour pressure of the liquid with its temperature. Te following points are to be noted in vapour pressure thermometer @ Vapour pressure does not change linearly with temperature. At lower temperature change’ vapour pressure is small and at higher temperature it is large for unit change in temperature. (i) Interchange of liquid and vapour in the system. When the temperature of the bulb is love the liquid remains in the bulb and vapour occupies the tube and this is reversed when he bulb temperature is higher. ‘To overcome this limitation a modification is done and dual filled system in which two differes liquids one volatile and other non-volatile are used. The liquid used for vapour pressure thermometer are mercury, xylene, alcohol, ether etc. The liquid used for vapour pressure thermometer are methyl chloride, diethyl ether, ethyl alcohol, wate toluene, argon etc. ‘Maximum cube length for mercury filled is 150-200 fe and range of temperature for which it used as — 40 c0 540°C. 3.2.4 Thermocouple Icis a simple device made of wires of two energy into electrical energy. Principle : If ewo different metals are joined at one end and a junction is made. If this junctio”® heated to a higher temperature with respect to free ends and if these two conductors of metals at fe ends are connected by an instrument, an emf is setup and will establish a flow of cusrent. ilar metals joined ac their ends, Ie converts themTemperature Measurements 25 ‘The flow of current from hot junction to free end of the wire at high temperature is called as see beck effect. The magnitude of the emf will depends on : (i) The magnitude of difference berween the temperature of these junctions. Gi) Thematerials used as conductors. Construction : It consists of two wires of suitable materials which are joined together at one end is called measuring junction made up by twisting together and joining the tips, and the other end is called reference junction or cold junction is connected to measuring unit through extension wire to complete the circuit. For measuring the emfa millivoltmeter or for more accurate measirement.a potentiometer system is used which is calibrated in terms of temperature. ‘To give protection to the junction from injurious gases a refractory sheath is used. This is also used to prevent mechanical damage. A simple thermocouple is shown in Fig. 3.4. Protection sheath —_-—themecoupe Reference junction G = : O-|-wanatmse anata Tee ea teenie ‘The characteristics of thermocouple materials are as (i) _ Teshould have linear temperature emf relationship. ii) Sufficient thermo emf per degree of temperature change to facilitate detection and measurement. (iii) Tt should be physically able to withstand, sustained high temperature, rapid temperature changes and effect of corrosive atmosphere. (iv) Thermocouple should be such that to follow only one characteristics whether the temperature rises or fills. (¥) Cost should be reasonable. Some of the thermocouple and its characteristics are given in Table 3.1. ‘Table 3.1: Thermocouple characteristics. ~ S. | Thermocouple | Sensitivity/*C| Normal | Maximum | Service Characterization No.| | Temperature | Temperature ce Range (°C) |__(°C) 1. |Copperlconstantan 0.03 200 to 400 600 {High resistance 2, |Iron/constantan 0.05 | -20010800 | 1000 _—_|Alow cost couple withstanding oxi- dation and reducing atmosphere 3. |Chromel/alumel 0.04 — |-200%0 1200) 1400 __| Withstand oxidising atmosphere 4. [Platinum (50%) +| 0.006 300 to 1400 1700 |Withstand oxidat by emf ef Rhodium —(10%)/ fected in the presence of metal car-| |Platinum (100%) bon and silicatesA instrumentation ane Pro om, ‘Also, there are tungsten-thenium thermocouples in common use for measuring tempera, 2100°C. These alloys have poor oxidation resistance and should be used in vacuum, hydrogen ang % atmosphere: Peltier fc: The absorption and evolution of heat tthe junction of thermocogp current flow in the circuit is called Peltier effect. | 3.2.5. Thermopiles The thermopiles are series of thermocouples connected side by side ori star formation. The oupuyy thermopile sequal othe sum ofthe emfand is much more sensitive than the thermocouple. ing thermopile is shown in Fig, 3.5. (A) Minivolimeter Hot junction Intermediate unction Fig. 3.5 Thermople. A chromel/constantan thermocouple having 14 couples gives about 1 mV/°C and achieve sensitivity of 0.002°C. The hot junctions of individual couples must be carefully insulated from each other. Thermopiles arranged in parallel can be used to determine the average temperature of the system. Cold junction 3.2.6 Resistance Thermometer ‘With increase in temperature the electrical resistance of most of the metals increases is almost direcly proportionals to the rise in ‘temperature. Therefore, if the electrical resistance of a wire of knovn calibrated material is measured, the temperature of the wire can be determined. ‘The sensing element which is used to measure the temperature is made by winding of resistance wire on a insulated material and may be placed in a stainless steel bulb to protect it from corrosive uids and also damage to the wire. The temperature can be measured in terms of resistance of wire by using resistance bridge using the sensing element as one arm of the bridge. A simple resistance thermometers shown in Fig. 3.6. Resistance (epee S/+— Fined resistor Fig. 3.6 Resistance thermometer.Temperature Measurements a ‘The characteristic of resistance elements used for measuring temperatures given in the Table 3.2. ‘Table 3.2 : Characteristics of resistance element. S.No. | _ Resistance wire Rated resistance at 0°C (ohms) Range of temperature (°C) _ 1. [Platinum 10 010 650 2. [Platinum 46 200 ro 500 3. [Platinum 100 200 0 600 4. |Copper 50 50 to 180 5._|Copper 100 50 t0 250 ‘The resistance thermometer has an accuracy of + 0.75% of scale range at temperature upto 600" ‘Advantages : (This can be employed where the capillary length of liquid expansion thermometer would be excessive. (ii) By suitable modification of the system, resistance thermometer can be used to determine remperature difference, average temperature etc. 3.2.7 Pyrometer ‘Temperature of an object can be measured by means of the quantity and characteristics of the energy which it radiate. It is generally called pyromerer. The broad classification of pyrometer is as follows : (i) Radiation pyrometer (ii) Optical pyrometer (@ Radiation Pyrometer Tc measures the rate of energy emission per unit area over a relatively broad range of wave length. “The temperature is measured by measuring the intensity of radiation emitted by a hot body over a range of wavelength. ‘The Stefan Boltzmann equation states thac the rate at which energy emitted from a unit area by a black body is a function of the difference of the fourth power of absolute temperature of a hot sources and a receiver. It may be represented by the equation 6 (T\ -T#) (3.2) Amount of heat transfer A= Heat transfer surface area «= Boltzmann constant ‘emperature of the source T, = Temperature of the sink. Therefore, the temperature of a suitably arranged receiver may be theoretically related to the temperature of a hot target. A simple form of radiation pyrometer is shown in Fig. 3.7, Ie consists ofa lens or mirror optical system for focussing radiating energy on a detecting element and a detector which may be photocell on a thermopile or other element which varies as electrical quantity asa function of temperature. The optical system and detector must be protected with a housing and an auxiliary instrument provided for measuring the pyrometer signal, i«., millivoltmeter. where,Instrumentation and Prog, th Diaphragm Thermocouple | =H s Sighting hole @ er) "| Mitivotmeter ie) Hot object Lens. Fig. 3.7 Radiation pyrometer. Range : Ichas range from 70 to 5500°C. An arbitrary classification forthe range of operation oy, which a single type of instrument is recommended for use are : (High range (i) Intermediate range Low-intermediate range (iv) Low range Applications : These are particularly recommended for industrial temperature measuremeny under conditions which make difficult or impossible to use the other primary elements. These include: (Temperature above the practical operating range of thermocouple. !) Environments which contaminate or limit the life of thermocouple. (iii). Moving targets. (iv) Targets which would be accessible such as furnace interiors. (¥) Targets which would be damiaged by contact with primary elements like thermocouple and resistance thermometer. (vi) Average temperature of large surface area. Gi) Optical Pyrometer Ie is a type of pyrometer in which brightness (for a narrow wavelength interval) of a hot objects ‘manually compared by the operators eye with that of a source of standard brightness. ‘The optical pyrometer is widely employed for accurate measurement of the temperature of farnaces, molten metals and other heated materials. It is primarily used in the range of 550 to 300°C Most of the optical pyrometers are manually operated and thereby, somewhat limited in ther application. A typical optical pyrometer is shown in Fig. 3.8. The optical pyrometers are manually operates with nearly monochromatic light. The wavelengt is usually a band of about 0.01 micron wide at 0.65 micron in the red portion of the variable spectrum. ‘The pyrometer acts as a telescope. The lens focusses radiation from the source at the plane of tt filament. The eye piece should also be focussed at the same plane, the red filter prevents all radiation from the hot sources except the red from reaching the eye. The intensity of the bulb is varied by sheostat and the current flowing is indicated by millivoltmeter which is calibrated in terms of temperature.Temperature Measurements Optical wedge Reed glass Monochromatic screen Yi Eye § ‘Dg Mitivotmeter Battery Fig, 3.8 Optical pyrometer. By adjusting the variable resistance the brilliance of the lamp is matched with that of the objecs where upon the filament becomes invisible. Then the reading of the millivoltmeter is taken as the indication of the object temperature. Applications : This instrument is extremely used by metallurgist both in industry and laboratory. Range : It has range from 600 to 3000°C. Characteristics : The characteristics of the optical pyrometers are as follows : (No direct contact with the object whose temperature is to be measured. (ii) Instrument can be used to measure-high temperature. (iii). Measurement are practically independent of the distance of the operator from the heated body. (iv) The temperature can be measured with great rapidity. REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.1 Whatis the significance of temperature measurement? 3.2 Compute the temperature at which Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales coincide. 3.3 Develop an algebraic equation relating the degree Centigrade and Fahrenheit scale. 3.4 For an ordinary mercury in glass thermometer name the parts that constitute the primary clement and the indicating elements. 3.5 With the help of a neat diagram explain the working of a radiation pyrometer. What are the possible errors in this type of instrument? What are the precautions to be taken? 3.6 Explain in derail the following temperature measuring instruments with neat sketch, working principle, range of operation and applications : (@. Thermocouples (ii) Thermopiles 3.7 Discuss the principles on which the bimetallic temperature measuring instrument and the mercury in glass thermometer work. Mention the range of temperature measured by them. Give their merits and demerits. 3.8 With a neat diagram explain the working of an optical pyrometer.Chapter 4 Flow Measurements 4.1 INTRODUCTION The measurement of flow rate and flow quantity of material is made primarily for the purpose of mixing different fluids at specific proportion and to get maximum efficiency and quality control of materials involve in the process. Secondarily, flow measurement are made for the purpose of cost accounting and ‘minimize the wastage of usually air, steam and water services. 4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENT ‘The flow measuring instruments may be broadly classified as : (i) Rate meter Gi) Quantity meter 4.2.1. Rate Meter Rate meter is essential for getting information about the amount of material flowing in or outof process. For example domestic water meter which indicates the amount of water used at any particular time interval. The various rate meter are as follows (Head meter Gi) Area meter (iil) Head area meter (iv) Velocity meter (%) Thermal flow meter (i) Radio isotope tracer flow meter (vil) Electro magnetic meter (iil) Alum sale velocicy meter 4.2.1.1 Head Meter Head meter operates on the principle of converting kinetic energy of flowing fluid and energy due to static pressure. A head meter normally consists of a primary element which causes the restriction in the flow line to induce the head and a secondary element to measure the differential head as a means of determining flow rate. The various head meters are as follows :Instrumentation and p, 93 "oreaa (Orifice mecer ii) Venturi meter Flow nozzle (iv) Pitot tube (i) Orifice Meter : The orifice meter works on the principle of conversion of energy from static pressure tp energy. : ‘An orifice meter is a flat disc normally of 1.5 to 3 mm thick material with a circular hy inserted between flanges in the pipe line. Usually the orifices are concentric but there are also ecce segmental type. A common type of orifice plates are shown in Fig. 4.1. Oooo (@) Concentie (b) Eccentric (6) Segmental Fig. 4.1 Orifice plate. The eccentric and segmental types are used for fluids consisting of suspended solids conta ‘mixture of liquid and gas. Passage of slid material isnot interfered with and there is no build upofsié ‘matter against the upstream face of the orifice plate as would occur with normal concentric orice, simple orifice meter is shown in Fig, 4.2. Mc rome late DFT AAA AAA pte eee Yin pe h Manometer Fig. 4.2 Orifice meter. For maximum accuracy the orifice plate should be located where the flow is most uniform, TH expression for volumetric flow rate is given by Q=Cp 2 vai where, — Q = Volumetric flow rate, m3 /s (4a) 44, = Cross-sectional area of pipe, m 4 = Cross-sectional area of orifice plate, mFlow Measurements Cp = Coefficient of discharge g = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s? +h= Difference in manometric fluid level, m. (ii) Venturi Meter The venturi meter works on the principle of conversion of energy from static pressure co kinetic energy, Te is mainly used for measuring high flow rates and the flow rates of | liquids having suspended particles. Compare to orifice meter here pressure loss is minimum. The pressure recovery is atained by long conical exit section. A simple venturi meter is shown in Fig. 4.3. Venturi Frid in ——— }= Fluid out Fig. 43 Venturi meter. In some cases to make possible large part of pressure a truncated recovery cone having an outlet diameter somewhat smaller than the inlet to the venturi is used. The shape and length of the outlet section has no effect on the coefficient of discharge of the tube. When cost factor is nor involved the most common reason for choice of venturi meter in preference to orifice meter is the better performance in the presence of solid in the flowing fluids suspension very quickly deposit on the upstream side of orifice plate and change of its coefficient of discharge. The vencuri meter because of stream lined entrance and exit does not provide any dead pocket or impingements which permits these solids to setle out. For Reynolds number above 10,000 based on upstream flow the discharge coefficient C p =0.98. “The expression for volumetric flow rate is given by Q=Cp aS \2gh.m3 /s wa(4.2) 2 ay where, 4, = Cross-sectional area of pipe, m a = Cross-sectional area of throat, m? (iii) Flow Nozzle ‘The flow nozzle works on the principle of conversion of energy from static pressure to kinetic energy. Te consists of a belt shaped approach section of elliptical profile followed by a cylindrical throat tangent to the ellipse. A simple flow nozzle is shown in Fig. 4.4.Instrumentation and Process o, Nozzle Fluid in ot Manometer Fig. 4.4 Flow nozzle, The pipe wall taps are located at 1 pipe dia upstream and 0.5 dia down stream from the inlet fe f the nozzle to achieve the best result. The flow coefficient of flow nozzle is approximately 60% high than that of the orifice plate. ‘Though the flow nozzle would appear to give a higher pressure recovery than an orifice, becauseof the flow coefficient higher than that of the orifice plate, lower diameter ratio is required to gee the desired reading on the differential pressure measuring device. Since the flow nozzle requires smalkt diameter ratio for getting the same differential head as that of an orifice plate for a given flow rate, the permanent pressure loss of a flow nozzle is of the same magnitude as that of an orifice. The nozzle should be so installed that the flow is vertically up when there are entrained vapour et gases, because of the possibility of gas accumulation. For liquid suspended particles it should be install vertically downwards so that the materials which dropout of suspension will be unable to alter approach conditions because there will be no good place for them to remain. The volumetric flow rate may be calculate as in the case of orifice meter. (iv) Pitot Tube The pitot tube works on the principle of conversion of kinetic energy to pressure at the impact tube. Iisa device to measure point velocity. The principle behind this instrument is that fluid flowing with certain velocity when strike the pitot tube, its forward motion is arrested and the impact results the conversion of kinetic energy into potential energy. As a result of this an excess head is generated inside the tube. A simple pitot tube is shown in Fig, 4.5. Pitot tube Fluid lo P+ 2° AAA} Pid out Fig. 4.5 Pitot tube. A static pressure tapping is taken from the pipe and connected to the low pressure side of ‘measuring instrument and high pressure side which given impact pressure to the pitot tube. The relatio beoween the differential pressure and velocity at the tip of pitor tube is given by the relationFlow Measurements 35 vec +(4.3) where, V = Velocity of flowing fluid, m/s C= Velocity coefficient Pm = Density of manometric fluid, m3/kg p = Density of flowing fluid, m3 /kg £ = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s? +4 = Differential head of manometer, m ‘Then the velocity is converted into volumetric flow rate by multiplying cross-sectional area of the flow system and expressed as Q=V.Am ss (44) Iehas got a very limited application commercially as a primary clement because of the following reasons : ()__ Irhas tendency to play when the flowing fluid contains small amounts of solids, Gi) Tehas velocity range limitation when used with standard commercial instruments. (iii) Ie gives only the point velocity, ie., it gives different velocities at different ‘spot across the diameter. 4.2.1.2 Area Meter In this meter the cross-sectional area for flow is varied ro keep the constant pressure differential at the restriction. The flow rate is a function of cross-sectional area available for flow, i.e, the position of the restriction. The general type of variable area meters are : (Rota meter Gi) Piston meter (iil) Orifice and plug area meter ( Rota Meter It is an indicating type of instrument. It consists of a long vertical tube having a uniform |» Fu out tapper, arranged with smaller section at the bottom and largest at the top. There is a free flowing float inside the tube, the position of which indicate the flow rate. In some design there are series of angled slots cut into the float so that a fluid flows past the float will be caused to spin to prevent the float from moving to the sides of the rota meter tube. A simple rota meter is shown in Fig. 4.6. As the rate of flow through the rota meter increases, the float rises in the tube increasing the annulus between the float and the tube wall and | thus maintain a constant pressure differential Ss Tapered metering tube Float U Fluid in —> Fig. 4.6 Rotameter.96 —______ instrumentation and Process, my across the float. The position of float in the tube is a measure ‘of volumetric flow rate and the tube, may calibrated in terms of volumetric flow rates. Rota meter may be used to measure the flow rates of Tiquids and gases. 4 Rota meter usually made up of transparent material like glass and Acrolite. The choice of material construction of rota meter depends upon the typeof uid o be wed and its low at, Get example are given below : (i) Glass rota meter : Liquid : Low flow rate 30-300 mils High flow rate 0.5 —5 lit/s Low flow rate 0.2 —2 lids High flow rate 4-40 lls (Gi) Metal rota meter : Up to 120 lls Precautions: It is important that the temperature of the fluid should remain constant, otherwise the viscosity and density of the fluid being metered may change and the temperature function may cause considerable errors particularly when gases are being measured. A futher source of error isthe tendency of the float to oscillate which make accurate scale reading difficult. Teshould be noted that a rota meter can be installed only in a vertical position. Gas (ii) Piston Meter In this type, a piston is accurately fitted inside a sleeve and is lifted by fluid pressure until sufficient port }— Gracuatod scale area in the sleeve is uncovered to permit passage of the flow. The flow is indicated by position of the piston. A simple piston meter is shown in Fig. 4.7. This meter is quite similar to the rota meter. In ane this meter a constant pressure force must be exerted on the piston, Ifthe pressure difference across the piston is more, it will push the piston up which decreases the Gall differential pressure. In this manner piston is positioned U such that it maintain a constant differential pressure. The magnet attached at the top of the cylinder shows the position of piston. This in term gives the port area available for flow and the flow rate. The body ‘material is cast iron or steel or other material depending. Fluid in—+ on: The chemical activity of the liquid. Gi) The strength of the material required. Fig. 4.7 Piston motor. Characteristics of Piston Meter : (i) These are well adopted to the measurement of highly variable flow rate (ii) Accuracy fs generally 98%. (iil) Corrosive liquids can be handled by suitably choosing the materials of construction.Flow Measurements (iii) Orifice and Plug Area Meter ___ Ie consists of tapered plug and is of such a form that the area of the annular space between the ore a the plug is proportional to the lif ofthe plug. A simple orifice and plug area meter is shown in Fig. 4.8. Fluid out Orifice Fluid in Fig. 4.8 Ontice and plug aroa motor. The height by which the plug rises when a fluid flows past is a measure of the rate of flow. 4.2.1.3 Head Area Meter Head area meters are often called open channel meter. It is also known as weirs. Here, both head and area of the stream vary with the flow and area of the stream. The flow depends on the head, i., the level of liquid in the weir. These are used for metering liquid, usually water in open channel or in conduit which do not flow full and do not flow under pressure. The general type of head area meters are as follows : (Rectangular weir (i) Triangular weir (iii) Trapezoidal weir (iv) Flume () Rectangular Weir It provide restriction in the flow path by means of weirs opening in the dam through which it flows. A simple rectangular weir is shown in Fig. 4: This is most popular because of its easy construction, accuracy Crest and simplicity. The expression for volumetric flow rate is given by and Cp Uy —0.2h).xf2gh?, m3 Is 2.5) Fig. 4.9 Rectangular weirsge——_ instrumentation and Process coy where, Q= Volumetric flow rate, m?/s Cp = Coefficient of discharge Ly = Breadth of weir, m ‘h = Height of the surface of liquid above the crest, m = Acceleration due to gravity, m/s” (ii) Triangular Weir This has a greater practical range than any other type for a given size. This is more suitable for measuring flows less than 4 ft?/s because of its greater head loss. A simple triangular weir is shown in Fig. 4.10. ‘The flow rate can be calculated using the expression oan Q=Cy-h.randl2. 2gp?, m/s +46) where, 0 = Angle between the sides. Fig. 4.10 Tanoeiar web “The value of flow coefficient Cp varies with : (@ Weirs angle Gi) Head (iii) Kinematic viscosity (iv). Surface tension Cp values varies from 0.58 to 0.7. Trapezoidal Weir This is not much in practical use because ofits complexity. A simple trapezoidal weit is shown in Fig. 4.11. The flow rate can be calculated using the expression Q@ 2g? wo where, Ly, = Length of the crest, m. Fig. 4:11 Trapezoidal i (4.7) (iv) Flume cis particularly used when large amount of liquid to be measured and_ { 7 scale Shalt position when. tank is full |— shatt position when Nola tank is empty Sa Fig, 5.4 Float and shaft mechanism There are many other arrangement in which movement of float is transformed into pointer movement on a calibrated scale so that level can be measured accurately. 5.2.1.4 Ekstrom Indicator Method. Itisthe development of sight glass with all the advantages and simplicity and there isno potential danger of breaking of the glasses. A simple Ekstrom level indicator is shown in Fig, 5.5. Fluid in Hollow iron float follows permanent ‘magnet Hollow float permanent magnet - > Fluid out 5.5. Ekstrom indicator. 5.2.2 Indirect Method of Level Measurement Indirect method of liquid level measurement generally employed where the direct method is not feasible. For example, consider a closed tank system in remote area where going of all the way, all the time for measuring level of the liquid in the tank is not comfortable. Therefore, in this case a indirect level measurement like bubbler air method is employed. Consider an another case of tank containing corrosive and viscous liquid where direct method of level measurement is not feasible, the indirect level measurement like pressure gauge system can be employed. In this method no difficulties arises in level measurement but there are some disadvantage with this instrument. The various method of indirect level measurement are as follows : (i) Pressure gauge method (i) Air trap method ii) Diaphragm method (iv) Bubbler method (v) Differential pressure method (vi) Radio active method48 Instrumentation and Process Cop, ro, 5.2.2.1 Pressure Gauge Method ‘The hydrostatic head created by a liquid column is used in this method to determine the level. The pressure gauge installed near the bottom of the tank will record a pressure which is proportional to the height. Hence, if che pressure gauge is calibrated, we can read the level directly. A simple pressure gauge level measurement is shown in Fig. 5.6. ‘The gauge can serve as a pneumatic transmitter for remote indication, recording and control. For proper operation, the liquid Fig. 5.6 Pressure gauge level neither corrode the gauge nor it should contain solid suspensions ‘measurement. which would clog the gauge and can give erratic reading of the liquid level. 5.2.2.2 Air Trap Method This is similar to the pressure gauge method. The pressure receiver operate from the pressure of the trapped air. A simple air trap level measurement method is shown in Fig. 5.7. @Preeewe gauge Vessel Ae trapped Fig. 5:7 Air trapped level measurement. ‘The main limitation of this type is the possibility of slow loss of air trapped in the system. 5.2.2.3 Diaphragm Method Diaphragm method of level measurement is similar to air trap method. A simple diaphragm method of level measurement is shown in Fig. 5.8. § Pressure gauge Vessel—+| Diaphragm —} Fig. 5.8 Diaphragm level measurement.varayMdmatenrion Sas ly For corrosive, thick, viscous and solid contaminated liquid diaphragm seals or air traps are used. Both systems are transmitting fluid mostly air benween liquid and the gauge. The air pressure is indicated on the gauge scale in terms of liquid level. : ee 5.2.24 Bubbler Method The air pressure downstream of a flow restriction equals the hydrostatic pressure above the bubbler tube end. A pipe is installed vertically in the vessel with its open end at the zero level. The other end of the pipeis connected to a regular air supply and a pressure gauge. A simple bubbler method of level measurement is shown in Fig. 5.9. To make level measurement the air supply is adjusted so that the pressure is slightly higher than the pressure due to the height of the liquid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the tube, The pressure gauge then measure the air pressure needed to overcome the pressure of the liquid. The gauge is calibrated in terms of level and expressed as Pressure gauge Vessel—>| Bubbles | Fig. 5.9 Bubbler method of level measurement. hb=P-P, 6.1) where, = Level of water, m P= Applied pressure, N/m? P, = Atmospheric pressure, Nim? 5.2.25 Differential Pressure Method This method is used to measure the level of closed vessel. When the liquid is in a pressure vessel, the liquid column pressure can not be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced. This is usually done using a differential pressure meter. A simple differential pressure meter is shown in Fig, 5.10. ‘The connections are made to the vessel at the top and bottom and also to the column of the differential pressure meter. The top connection is made to the low pressure column of the meter and the bottom connection to the high pressure column. In this the pressure in the column is balanced since itis fed to the both column of the meter. The difference in pressure detected by the meter is due to the Pressure vessel Differential ‘manometer Fig. 5.10 Differential pressure method of level measurement.Instrumentation and Process Con $80 . , a his | changing level of liquid. Any of the differential pressure device can be used for this method “hy measurement. 2.2.6 Radio Active Method ; ‘ the radio active method is based on the principle of dependence of absorption of radio active "adiatg, up on the height of the liquid level. In this ace method radio active isotopes are used as the | source of emission. In this method of level measurement cone or more radio active sources are placed on ane sie ofthe veel, wih a peak up onthe other side, Generally, about 60 is the source of | Y@5° radiation used is placed in a carriage on one side of the tank and receiver: is a halogen counter placed in another carriage on the other side ofthe vessel. A simple radio active Pao ace resi Heel tacibattmene if dhown it~ OS ui ain ahd of level measurement ig. 5.11. As the level ofthe liquid changes it absorb more or less of radio active energy by the pick up catia, which s connected ro special leetronic amplifier designed to produce enough elecried energy to actuate an electrical meter. The meter scale is calibrated to level unte Receiver element, REVIEW QUESTIONS 2:1. What is the significance of level measurement? Explain, 5.2 Classify the level measuring instrument, 5.3. Explain the working princi 5.4 Explain the tank level gauy 5.5 What are float switches? 5.6 How is radio active method used to 5.7 Explain the importance of li 5.8 With the help of a neat ske ‘measure the liquid level? uid level measurement in process industry. tch describe the working Principle and functioning of an air bubbler g instrument. What are its limitations? 5.9 Write short notes on level ‘measuring instrument. 5.10 What are the possible so 5.11 Whats the basic 5.12 With a neat dia 5.13 How do you m. 5.14 Howdo 5.15