UNIT I: H.V.D.C.

Transmission

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS :

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission is a technology used to transmit large
amounts of electrical power over long distances. Here are some general considerations
associated with HVDC transmission:

1. Efficiency: - HVDC systems are generally more efficient for long-distance transmission of
electricity compared to High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) systems. This is because
HVDC transmission lines have lower losses over extended distances.

2. Long-distance transmission:

- HVDC is particularly suitable for transmitting electricity over long distances, typically
beyond 500 kilometers. It is often used for interconnecting power grids that are far apart.

3. Converter stations:

- HVDC systems require converter stations at each end of the transmission line to convert
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) at the sending end and then back to AC at the
receiving end.

4.Overhead or underground transmission:

- HVDC can be transmitted overhead through conventional transmission lines (using

overhead lines) or underground using high-voltage cables. The choice depends on factors
such as environmental considerations, land use, and the distance of transmission.

5. Stability and control:

- HVDC systems provide better control over power flow and system stability compared to
HVAC systems. This is particularly advantageous in interconnected power systems where
maintaining stability is crucial.

6. Interconnection of asynchronous grids:

- HVDC is often used to interconnect asynchronous power grids (grids operating at

different frequencies or with different phases). It facilitates the exchange of power between
these grids.

7. Reduced line losses:

- HVDC transmission lines experience lower line losses compared to HVAC lines, especially
over long distances. This is because the losses in HVDC lines are primarily due to the
resistance of the conductors, and there is no reactive power component.
8. Control of power flow:

- HVDC systems allow for precise control of power flow, which can be important for
managing power distribution in interconnected grids and for integrating renewable energy
sources.

9. Cost considerations:

- While HVDC technology can be more expensive to implement initially, the reduced
transmission losses and increased efficiency can contribute to cost savings over the long
term, especially for large-scale, long-distance transmission projects.

10. Environmental impact:

- HVDC transmission lines may have different environmental impacts compared to HVAC
lines. These considerations include factors such as electromagnetic fields, visual impact, and
land use. The choice between overhead and underground transmission can also have
environmental implications.

11. Maintenance and reliability:

- HVDC systems require specialized equipment and expertise for maintenance. Ensuring
the reliability of converter stations and associated components is crucial for the continuous
and efficient operation of HVDC transmission.Overall, HVDC transmission is a valuable
technology for efficiently transmitting large amounts of power over long distances and
interconnecting power systems with diverse characteristics. The choice between HVDC and
HVAC depends on various factors, including distance, power capacity, and specific project
requirements.

POWER HANDLING CAPABILITIES OF HVDC TRANSMISSION :

The power handling capabilities of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) lines depend on
several factors, including the technology used, the design specifications, and the
characteristics of the transmission system. Here are some key considerations:

1. Voltage Level: - HVDC lines operate at high voltage levels. The power handling capacity
is directly influenced by the voltage level, with higher voltages allowing for the transmission
of more power. HVDC systems can operate at voltage levels typically ranging from a few
hundred kilovolts (kV) to over a thousand kilovolts.

2. Current Capacity:

- The power transmitted through an HVDC line is the product of voltage and current. The
current-carrying capacity of the transmission line is influenced by the conductor size,
material, and cooling methods. High current capacity allows for the transmission of more
power.
3. Converter Technology:

- The type of converter technology used in the HVDC system also affects its power handling
capabilities. LCC (Line Commutated Converter) and VSC (Voltage Source Converter) are two
common types of converter technologies. VSC-based HVDC systems, in particular, offer better
controllability and can handle variable power flow more effectively.

4. Configuration:

- HVDC systems can be configured as point-to-point links or as multi-terminal systems. The

configuration affects the overall power handling capabilities. Multi-terminal HVDC systems,
for example, allow for more complex power flow control and can enhance the flexibility of
the transmission network.

5. Thermal Limits:

- The thermal limits of the transmission components, such as cables or overhead lines, play
a critical role in determining the power handling capabilities. Exceeding thermal limits can
lead to overheating and reduce the transmission capacity.

6. Distance:

- HVDC is often preferred for long-distance transmission due to its lower line losses. The
power handling capabilities of an HVDC line can be optimized for specific distances, and the
technology is particularly advantageous for transmitting power over distances exceeding
500 kilometers.

7. Grid Integration:

- The integration of HVDC into a larger power grid requires coordination with other
elements of the grid. The power handling capabilities need to align with the overall capacity
and demand of the interconnected system.

8. Voltage Stability and Reactive Power Control:

- HVDC systems provide better control over reactive power, and this can impact the overall
voltage stability of the transmission system. Proper management of reactive power allows
for more efficient power transfer.

9. Grid Dynamics:

- The dynamic behavior of the power system, including factors like transient stability and
system response to disturbances, can influence the power handling capabilities of HVDC
lines. Advanced control systems are often employed to enhance the stability and reliability of
the transmission.
BASIC CONVERSION PRINCIPLES :

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission involves the conversion of electrical power
from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) at the sending end, and then back from
DC to AC at the receiving end. This conversion is achieved through the use of HVDC converter
stations, which employ different technologies. The two main types of HVDC converters are
Line Commutated Converters (LCC) and Voltage Source Converters (VSC). Here are the basic
conversion principles for each:

Line Commutated Converters (LCC):

1. Rectification (AC to DC conversion):

- The process starts with rectification, where AC power from the power grid is converted
into DC power. This is typically done using a set of power electronic devices called thyristors.

- Thyristors are semiconductor devices that allow the flow of current in one direction only.
They are arranged in a specific configuration, such as a six-pulse or twelve-pulse bridge, to
facilitate the conversion of AC to DC.

2. Inversion (DC to AC conversion):

- At the receiving end, where power is to be delivered to the AC grid, the DC power is
converted back to AC through a process called inversion.

- During inversion, the thyristors are triggered to allow the flow of current in both
directions. This process recreates a sinusoidal AC waveform from the DC input.

3. Commutation:

- The term "line commutated" refers to the natural commutation of the thyristors. The
change in the polarity of the AC voltage (zero crossing) automatically turns off the
conducting thyristors, allowing for the next set to be triggered.

- This commutation process ensures the conversion of AC to DC and vice versa.

4. Transformer:

- Transformers are used in both the rectification and inversion stages to adjust the voltage
levels as required for the transmission system. They provide voltage transformation and
isolation between the AC and DC sides.

Voltage Source Converters (VSC):

1. Rectification (AC to DC conversion):

 - In VSC-based HVDC systems, the rectification process is achieved using power electronic
devices known as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).

- IGBTs can switch rapidly, allowing for precise control of the DC voltage level and enabling
the conversion of AC to DC.

2. Inversion (DC to AC conversion):

- During inversion, the IGBTs are again used to create an AC waveform from the DC input.
VSCs have the advantage of providing independent control over both the magnitude and
frequency of the output AC waveform.

- The resulting AC waveform can closely follow the desired sinusoidal waveform, offering
better controllability than traditional LCC-based systems.

3. No Commutation:

- Unlike LCC-based systems, VSCs do not rely on natural commutation. The switching
devices (IGBTs) control the flow of current without waiting for natural zero crossings in the
AC waveform.

This feature allows VSC-based HVDC systems to offer faster and more flexible control over
power flow.

In summary, Line Commutated Converters (LCC) use thyristors for natural commutation and
rely on the AC grid's zero crossings for switching, while Voltage Source Converters (VSC) use
IGBTs for rapid and precise control of both rectification and inversion processes. VSC-based
systems offer improved controllability and are well-suited for applications that require
dynamic power control and grid integration.

STATIC CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS :

Static converters are devices that convert electrical energy from one form to another using
solid-state electronic components. In the context of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
transmission, static converters are employed in converter stations to convert alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC) at the sending end and then back to AC at the receiving
end. Two main types of static converter configurations are commonly used in HVDC systems:
Line Commutated Converters (LCC) and Voltage Source Converters (VSC).

1. Line Commutated Converters (LCC):

a. Graetz Bridge Configuration:

 - LCCs use thyristor-based converters arranged in a configuration known as the Graetz
bridge.

- The Graetz bridge is a series of thyristor valves arranged in a bridge-like structure that
facilitates the rectification (AC to DC conversion) and inversion (DC to AC conversion)
processes.

- LCCs rely on the natural commutation provided by the AC system, meaning that the
thyristors automatically turn off when the AC voltage crosses zero.

b. Twelve-Pulse Configuration:

- In larger HVDC installations, a twelve-pulse converter configuration may be employed.

- This configuration uses two sets of Graetz bridges operating with a phase shift of 30
degrees. This results in a twelve-pulse arrangement, which reduces harmonic distortion and
improves the quality of the AC output waveform.

c. Parallel Operation:

- LCCs can be operated in parallel to enhance power transfer capacity.

- Parallel operation involves connecting multiple converter bridges in parallel to handle

higher power levels, typically found in multi-terminal HVDC systems.

2. Voltage Source Converters (VSC):

a. Full-Bridge Configuration:

- VSCs use insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) as the switching devices for both
rectification and inversion.

- In the full-bridge configuration, four IGBTs are arranged in a bridge circuit for each phase.
The IGBTs are controlled to generate a variable-frequency AC output.

b. Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC):

- The MMC is a specific type of VSC that has gained popularity in HVDC applications.

- It consists of multiple submodules connected in series to form a staircase-like voltage

waveform. This configuration enables precise control of the AC output voltage and reduces
harmonic distortion.

c. Hybrid Configurations:

- Hybrid configurations, such as the combination of LCC and VSC technologies, are also
being explored for certain HVDC applications to leverage the strengths of both technologies.
 Common Features:

1. Transformers:

- Both LCC and VSC configurations involve transformers for voltage transformation and
isolation between the AC and DC sides.

2. Filters:

- Both configurations often incorporate filters to mitigate harmonic distortion and improve
the quality of the AC output waveform.

3. Control Systems:

- Advanced control systems are crucial for both LCC and VSC configurations to ensure
proper synchronization, power balance, and dynamic response to changes in the grid
conditions.

The choice between LCC and VSC configurations depends on factors such as project
requirements, grid characteristics, and the need for dynamic power control. LCCs are well-
established and have been widely used, while VSCs offer advantages in terms of
controllability and grid integration. The selection is often based on the specific needs of the
HVDC project.

COMPARISION OF HVDC AND HVAC

HVAC & HVDCHVAC stands for High Voltage Alternating Current while HVDC stands for
High Voltage Direct Current. These are generally the range of voltage either AC (HVAC) or
DC (HVDC) that are used for power transmission over long distances. However, HVDC is
preferred to be used for transmitting power over long distances usually more than 600 Km.
Nowadays both types of power transmission are used all over the world. While these both
have some merits & demerits, we are going to discuss each of them briefly in this
article below.
Cost of Transmission
We know that power transmission over long distances requires high voltages. The power is
transmitted between terminal stations that convert the voltage levels. So the total
cost of transmission depends on the terminal station’s cost & the cost of the transmission
line.
Terminal Station
The high voltages are transmitted between electrical terminal stations & their job is the
voltage conversion. In the case of AC, the equipment used for voltage conversion at
these terminals is mainly transformers that convert between high & low Voltage. While in the
case of DC, the terminal stations use thyristor or IGBTs based converters for conversion
between high & low DC voltage.Since the transformers are more reliable & cheaper thanthese
solid-state converters, the AC terminal stations are cheaper than DC terminal station.
Therefore, voltage conversion in AC is inexpensive then DC.
Transmission Line
The transmission line cost depends on the number of conductors being used & the cost of the
transmission tower. In the case of conductors being used for transmission, the
HVDC transmission requires only two conductors, while the HVAC transmission system
requires 3 or more than 3 conductors (including the bundled conductor due to corona
effect). Because of the heavy mechanical load on AC transmission tower, their support needs
to be stronger & it must be wider & taller than HVDC transmission towers. The transmission
line cost increases with the distance & it is far greater than the HVDC line per 100Km of a
transmission line.
Overall Cost of Transmission
Since the overall cost of transmission depends on terminal cost (remains constant) & line
cost (increases with distance). Therefore, the overall cost of the transmission
system increases with distance.

The transmission distance at which the overall investment cost for HVAC start increasing
than HVDC is called Breakeven Distance. This distance is estimated at around 400 –500 miles
(600- 800 in kilometers). HVDC is a better choice for power transmission over the break-
even distance.However, below this distance, HVAC is more economicalthan HVDC. This
information can be easily understood by the graph above.
Flexibility
Since the HVDC transmission is used for transmission over long distances between two
points, we cannot take power at any point in-between because it would need an expensive
converter to step down such high DC voltages. While HVAC transmission offers flexibility by
utilizing inexpensive equipment like transformers at multiple terminal stations to step down
these high voltages.
The Skin Effect
The skin effect causes the conductor to carry most of the current at its surface & less current
at the core. It depends on the frequency & it is directly proportional to it. It decreases the
efficiency of the conductors being used. Therefore, inorder to supply a larger current, the
cross-sectional area of the conductor needs to be increased.Thus the HVAC needs a larger
diameter conductor to carry the same amount of current as Compared to HVDC using a
smaller diameter conductor.

COMPARISON BETWEEN HVAC AND HVDC SYSTEMS - ECONOMIC,

TECHNICAL- POWER HANDLING CAPABILITIES OF HVDC LINES AND
RELIABILITY, LIMITATIONS
Comparing HVAC (High-Voltage Alternating Current) and HVDC (High-Voltage Direct
Current) systems involves considering various factors including economic, technical, power
handling capabilities, reliability, and limitations. Let's explore these aspects:

Economic Comparison:

1. Initial Cost:
- HVAC systems generally have lower initial costs for both equipment and infrastructure
compared to HVDC systems.
- HVDC systems require expensive converter stations and specialized equipment, making
them more costly to install initially.

2. Operating Cost:
- HVDC systems typically have lower operating costs over the long term due to lower
transmission losses, improved efficiency, and reduced need for reactive power
compensation.
- HVAC systems may have higher operating costs due to losses incurred during
transmission over long distances.

3. Maintenance Cost:
- HVDC systems may have higher maintenance costs due to the complexity of converter
stations and specialized equipment.
- HVAC systems may have lower maintenance costs as the technology is well-established
and widely used.

Technical Comparison:

1. Power Handling Capacity:

- HVDC systems have higher power handling capabilities compared to HVAC systems,
especially over long distances.
- HVDC lines can transmit more power per circuit due to lower losses and less voltage drop
over long distances.
2. Transmission Efficiency:
- HVDC systems have higher transmission efficiency compared to HVAC systems,
particularly for long-distance transmission and submarine cables.
- HVDC lines experience lower losses, resulting in higher efficiency and reduced energy
consumption during transmission.

3. Voltage Stability:
- HVDC systems offer better voltage stability compared to HVAC systems, especially in weak
AC systems or interconnected grids.
- HVDC lines can control voltage levels more effectively and provide stability support to AC
grids.

Reliability and Limitations:

1. Reliability:
- HVAC systems are well-established and have a proven track record of reliability and
performance.
- HVDC systems are also reliable but may have additional complexities associated with
converter stations and control systems.

2. Fault Response:
- HVAC systems may have faster fault response times compared to HVDC systems,
particularly for short-circuit faults.
- HVDC systems may require more time to detect and respond to faults due to the need for
sophisticated control and protection schemes.

3. Grid Integration:
- HVDC systems may face challenges in grid integration and synchronization with AC grids,
especially during system disturbances or grid faults.
- HVAC systems are inherently synchronized with AC grids and may offer easier integration
with existing infrastructure.

4. Environmental Impact:
- HVDC systems may have a lower environmental impact compared to HVAC systems,
especially for long-distance transmission where HVDC lines have lower losses and reduced
land requirements.

In summary, the choice between HVAC and HVDC systems depends on various factors
including the distance of transmission, power handling requirements, economic
considerations, reliability, and environmental impact. While HVDC systems offer advantages
in terms of power handling capacity, efficiency, and voltage stability, HVAC systems remain
widely used and may be more suitable for certain applications and grid configurations.

TYPES OF HVDC LINKS

Monopolar link
It has a single conductor of negative polarity and uses earth or sea for the
return path of current. Sometimes the metallic return is also used. In Monopolar
link, two converters are placed at the end of each pole. Earthing of poles is done
by earth electrodes placed about 15 to 55 km away from the respective terminal
stations. But this link has several disadvantages because it uses earth as a return
path. Monopolar link is not much in use nowadays

BIPOLAR LINKS
A bipolar link has two conductors, one positive and the other negative with
respect to earth. The midpoints of converters at each terminal station are earthed
via electrode lines. The voltage between the conductors is equal to two times the
voltages between either of the two conductors and ground. Since one conductor is
at the positive polarity with respect to earth and other is at negative polarity with
respect to earth. In bipolar link when one pole goes out of operation, the system
may be changed to the monopolar mode with the ground return. Thus, the system
continues to supply the half rated power.Bipolar links are most commonly used in
all high power HVDC systems.
Homopolar link
It has two conductors of the same polarity usually negative polarity, and
always operates with earth or metallic return. In the homopolar link, poles are
operated in parallel, which reduces the insulation cost. This system is not used
presently.

COMPONENTS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission system is a complex electrical
infrastructure designed for efficient and reliable transmission of large amounts of electrical
power over long distances. It comprises several key components, each playing a crucial role
in the overall operation of the system. Here are the main components of an HVDC
transmission system:
1. Converter Stations:
- Converter stations are the primary components of an HVDC system, located at each end of
the transmission line.
- They consist of converter modules that convert alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC) at one end and vice versa at the other end.
- Converter stations also include various auxiliary systems such as cooling systems, control
and protection systems, and AC/DC filtering equipment.

2. Converter Modules:
- Converter modules are responsible for converting AC to DC (rectification) and DC to AC
(inversion).
- There are two main types of converter modules: line-commutated converters (LCC) and
voltage-sourced converters (VSC), each with its own operating principles and characteristics.

3. HVDC Transmission Lines:

- HVDC transmission lines carry the converted DC power over long distances between the
converter stations.
 - They are typically overhead lines or submarine cables, depending on the specific
requirements of the transmission route.
- HVDC lines have lower losses and can transmit power over longer distances compared to
traditional alternating current (AC) transmission lines.

4. DC Filters:
- DC filters are used to smooth out the DC voltage and current, reducing harmonics and
ripple effects caused by the conversion process.
- They help improve the quality of the DC power transmitted over the HVDC lines and
minimize interference with neighboring systems.

5. AC Filters:
- AC filters are installed at the converter stations to suppress harmonics and other
distortions generated by the converters.
- They ensure that the AC voltage and current injected into the AC grid meet the required
quality standards and do not cause disturbances or voltage fluctuations.

6. Control and Protection Systems:

- Control and protection systems monitor and control the operation of the HVDC
transmission system, ensuring its safe and reliable operation.
- They include supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, protective relays,
voltage and current control systems, and other monitoring and control devices.

7. Cooling Systems:
- Cooling systems are essential for dissipating heat generated by the converter modules and
other components of the converter stations.
- They may include air-cooled or water-cooled systems, depending on the size and capacity
of the converters.

8. Grounding Systems:
- Grounding systems provide a low-impedance path to dissipate fault currents and ensure
the safety of personnel and equipment.
- Proper grounding is crucial for maintaining system stability and protecting against ground
faults and lightning strikes.

9. Terminal Equipment:
- Terminal equipment includes various devices and components located at the ends of the
HVDC transmission line, such as circuit breakers, disconnect switches, surge arresters, and
measuring instruments.
- These components facilitate the connection of the HVDC system to the AC grid and
provide protection against overvoltages, short circuits, and other abnormal conditions.

In summary, the components of an HVDC transmission system work together to convert,

transmit, and control electrical power efficiently and reliably over long distances. Each
component plays a vital role in ensuring the safe and efficient operation of the HVDC system
and maintaining the stability and quality of the power transmitted.
APPLICATIONS OF HVDC LINES

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) lines offer several advantages over traditional
alternating current (AC) lines, making them suitable for various applications:

1. Long-distance power transmission: HVDC lines are particularly efficient for transmitting
electricity over long distances. They experience lower power losses compared to AC lines
over long distances due to lower line resistance and capacitance.

2. Interconnecting power grids: HVDC lines can connect asynchronous or incompatible AC

grids, facilitating the exchange of electricity between regions or countries with different
frequencies or phases. This helps in balancing supply and demand, optimizing the utilization
of renewable energy resources, and enhancing grid stability.

3. Offshore wind farm connections: Offshore wind farms are often located far from the shore,
making traditional AC transmission less efficient due to higher losses and technical
challenges. HVDC lines are better suited for transmitting power from offshore wind farms to
onshore grids, improving efficiency and reducing costs.

4. Submarine power cables: HVDC is the preferred technology for submarine power cables
due to lower losses and the ability to transmit higher power over longer distances compared
to AC cables. These cables are used to connect offshore renewable energy installations to
onshore grids or to interconnect islands with mainland grids.

5. Cross-border power trading: HVDC lines enable efficient cross-border trading of electricity
between neighboring countries or regions. They provide greater control over power flow and
allow for the exchange of electricity based on market conditions, leading to economic
benefits and improved grid reliability.

6. Grid stabilization and control: HVDC systems offer fast and precise control of power flow,
voltage, and frequency, which is beneficial for grid stabilization and maintaining grid
reliability. They can help mitigate grid disturbances, support load balancing, and improve the
integration of renewable energy sources.

7. Urban power distribution: In densely populated urban areas, where space is limited and
environmental concerns are significant, HVDC lines can be used for underground or subsea
power distribution. They offer higher power density and lower electromagnetic interference
compared to AC lines, making them suitable for urban environments.

8. Remote power supply: HVDC technology can be used to supply power to remote or
isolated areas where establishing AC infrastructure is impractical or cost-prohibitive. This
includes supplying power to remote communities, mining sites, or industrial facilities located
far from the main grid.
Overall, HVDC lines play a crucial role in modernizing and optimizing power transmission
and distribution systems, supporting the integration of renewable energy sources, enhancing
grid flexibility, and facilitating international energy trade.