BIOCOMPOSTING

1. Bio Composting is the aerobic bio- degradation of organic materials under controlled
conditions, resulting in a rich humus-like material. Or A mixture of organic matter,
as from leaves and manure, that has decayed or has been digested by organisms, used
to improve soil structure and provide nutrients.
2. In natural systems, no such thing as "waste" exists. Energy and matter captured by life
processes are released upon the breakdown of organic substances only to be re-utilized
by living organisms within the system. Long-term soil fertility is maintained in natural
systems because the residues of biological decomposition are reused by them to foster
new growth. The transformation and flow of the nutrient- containing chemical
compounds involved in this process is often referred to as "nutrient cycling". Nutrient
cycling helps ensure the stability of natural systems over time by linking the processes
of synthesis (build-up) and degradation (breakdown).
3. Composting is differentiated from the natural decomposition of organic matter because
it is a process controlled by humans. Much of this resource guide is dedicated to
examining the factors that can be managed to optimize the composting process. Of
course, organic materials are recycled by nature regardless of whether we compost them
or not, but conditions may be regulated by humans to ensure a smooth process and the
generation of a quality end product.
4. Compost supplies nutrients essential to plant growth. 2. Compost additions to soil help
create organic reserves that release nutrients incrementally over many years 3. Compost
can therefore be applied in large quantities to soil systems with little danger of excess
nutrient accumulation. 4. Compost supplies other plant essential elements such as
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur and micronutrients to varying degrees 5.
Compost improves soil structure and tilth by lowering bulk densities, by increasing
permeability and porosity and by introducing microorganisms 6. Compost help mprove
the soil’s ability to retain plant nutrients (which are often in cationic form). Calcium,
magnesium and potassium, for example, can all be held on exchange sites. 7. Compost
can also help a soil retain fertilizer, pesticides, and herbicides, thus decreasing their loss
by erosion, leaching, and runoff
5. ‘Bio-degradation’ simply means the breakdown of materials by living organisms
(primarily microbes). ‘Organic materials’ are all those materials that were once living
themselves (eg leaves, grass clippings etc) or are the waste products of living organisms
(eg manure). ‘Controlled conditions’ simply means that it doesn’t happen by accident.
2. There needs to be some human intention and assistance involved. 3. Finally, ‘humus’
(not to be confused with hummus is a dark, stabilized organic material that is essentially
at, or at least near, the end of the road as far as decomposition goes. 4. It plays a very
important role in overall soil fertility (rich, healthy soils tend to have a higher proportion
of humus).
6. A product that is “compostable” is one that can be placed into a composition of
decaying biodegradable materials, and eventually turns into a nutrient-rich material. It
is almost synonymous with “biodegradable”, except it is limited to solid materials and
does not refer to liquids. Composting occurs in nature every day as fallen leaves and
tree limbs biodegrade into the forest floor. The EPA considers composting a form of
recycling because it turns resources into a usable product. Compost piles have been
used by many farmers and gardeners for generations. Food, leaves, grass clippings,
garden wastes, and tree trimmings (which amount to between 50 and 70 percent of
waste in this country) can all go into the compost pile, where hungry microorganisms
eat the waste to produce carbon dioxide, water and humus. The resulting compost is an
excellent natural fertilizer proven by organic gardeners to restore soil fertility, control
weeds, retain ground moisture and reduce soil erosion.
7. “A compostable item is capable of undergoing biological decomposition in a compost
site. Requirements: 1. Disintegration: Item must achieve 90% disintegration in 90
days 2. Biodegradation: Item must demonstrate a 60% conversion to CO2 within 180
days (conversion to CO2 and biomass continues even after 180 days) 3. Item leaves
no toxicity in soil
8. The composting process is carried out by a diverse population of predominantly aerobic
micro-organisms that decompose organic material in order to grow and reproduce. The
activity of these micro-organisms is encouraged through management of the carbon-
tonitrogen (C:N) ratio, oxygen supply, moisture content, temperature, and pH of the
compost pile. Properly managed composting increases the rate of natural
decomposition and generates sufficient heat to destroy weed seeds, pathogens, and fly
larvae.
9. What’s the difference!? Compostable means that an item will turn into nutrient-rich soil
within a specific timeline Certification standards require specific timelines in order for
products to be called compostable. Everything that is compostable is biodegradable, but
not everything that is biodegradable is compostable! Claiming that an item is
biodegradable means nothing without providing context of the conditions in which the
item will biodegrade. It could biodegrade anywhere from a month to 10,000 years!
10. The composting process can be divided into two main periods: (1) active composting
and (2) curing. Active composting is the period of vigorous microbial activity during
which readily degradable material is decomposed as well as some of the more decay-
resistant material, such as cellulose. Curing follows active composting and is
characterized by a lower level of microbial activity and the further decomposition of
the products of the active composting stage. When
 VERMICULTURE

What is Vermiculture?

The term vermiculture mainly refers to the scientific process of cultivating worm or artificial
rearing of worms to decompose organic food wastes into a nutrient-rich material. The output
of vermiculture is called vermicompost and is formed by the process in which earthworms
consume the farmyard manure and roughages in addition to the wastes from farms and thereby
producing it. The produced vermicompost is rich in terms of nutrients and other plant growth-
promoting substances, which is capable of supplying necessary mineral nutrients to help and
sustain plants growth.

Vermicompost Preparation

The primary components used in the preparation of Vermicompost include different types of
wastes, including the household garbage, industrial wastes in liquid form and wastes from the
municipality can also be used.

For culturing earthworms, crop residues, dry leaves, cattle dung, sawdust, coir waste, paddy
husk, slurry from the biogas plant, poultry waste and vegetable wastes are the basic materials
and the complete process of culturing should be done under shelter to avoid direct sunlight and
flooding by heavy rain

Most of us would be surprised by the fact that these earthworms are essential for maintaining
a healthy environment rather than just converting garbage to useful manure. The process of
earthworm multiplication and garbage conversion by earthworms into compost are very simple,
that farmers could do it by themselves.

How to Multiply Earthworms in Large Scale

The best method used by farmers to multiply the earthworms is by mixing more number
of biodegradable wastes, including the plant materials, dried leaves and cow dung in a
proportion of 1:1. Once the medium is done, around 40-50 earthworms species are released
into the medium and protected it from sun, rain and other prey. Regular maintenance is
required, keep a check at the moisture level by sprinkling water over it on a timely basis. Within
a timeframe of one to two months, the earthworms would multiply by 300 times relying on this
process alone. Thus, the new earthworms would assist us in preparing the vermicompost.
Merits of Vermicomposting

• Since it does not contain chemical elements, vermicompost being prepared from
organic wastes (biodegradable) is a natural fertilizer and eco-friendly too.

• Does not impact the environment, soil, and plants adversely.

• Soil compaction is reduced by it by boosting the soil aeration, tilth and texture.

• Owing to its high organic matter content, it improves the soil’s water retention capacity.

• Better nutrient absorption and root growth are promoted by it.

• Both the micro and macronutrients of the soil status are improved by its use.

Safety Measures

• The pit for the compost should be shielded from exposure to sunlight

• Guard the worms against pests and rats, bird, ants, etc.

• Sprinkle water on the pit when necessary to sustain the moisture level.

From the above discussion, one could state beyond doubt that earthworms are certainly one of
the significant creatures on earth despite them being tiny in size
 ORGANIC FARMING

1. What is Organic Farming? Organic farming is the production of crops and livestock
without the use of synthetic chemicals and in- organic fertilizers. Organic agriculture
aims at the human welfare without any harm to the environment which is the foundation
of human life itself. 3
2. History of Organic Farming Organic farming was practiced in India since thousands
of years. Agriculture was practiced using organic techniques, where the fertilizers,
pesticides, etc., were obtained from plant and animal products. Post-independent
India witnessed severe food crisis. India depended on heavy imports of food-for-aid
from western countries. Green Revolution introduced in 1970’s changed the situation
from food importer to food exporter by 1990
3. What is Organic agriculture Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains
the health of soil, ecosystem and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity
and biological cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of synthetic inputs
with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science
to benefit the environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality life for all
involved.
4. Why Organic Healthy food: Contains no toxic substances „Natural & Good taste
„Higher benefit cost ratio due to less external input use and premium price (20-25%)
„Takes care of Environmental concerns of Farming
5. Why farm organically? Organic farming aims to: increase long-term soil fertility.
control pests and diseases without harming the environment. ensure that water stays
clean and safe. use resources which the farmer already has, so the farmer needs less
money to buy farm inputs. produce nutritious food, feed for animals and high quality
crops to sell at a good price.
6. What is conventional/ modern agriculture? Modern agriculture uses pesticides,
herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides and harmful chemicals to produce the food we eat.
The food produced from conventional agriculture is harmful to human health because
they contain residues of chemicals and in-organic fertilizers.
7. Intensive Farming - chemicals ÒMany different chemicals are used to make plants and
animals grow faster ÒIntensive farmers use artificial fertilizers and growth promoters.
ÒIt is easier to use than manure and smaller quantities are needed, because it contains
 more of the elements. ÒArtificial fertilizers are spread on the ground or sprayed on the
crops.
8. Intensive Farming - chemicals Problems: Ò They do not just disappear but stay in the
plants that we eat, so our food is contaminated with chemicals. Ò Soil used to grow the
plants will also be contaminated and have chemicals in it for a very long time. Ò
Animals eat the grass , which has had chemicals sprayed on to it, so the chemicals get
into their blood and therefore the meat that we eat. Ò Chemicals run off the land into
rivers and kill plants and fish.
9. ORGANIC farming Artificial fertilizers are banned in Organic farming. Organic
farmers use animal manure, compost and human sewage, (which has been heated to
destroy any harmful microbes) to make their crops grow. ‘Green manure’ is grown –
plants are grown, then ploughed in and left to rot. Worms, insects and bacteria
underground are always working on making the soil good. By using a process called
CROP ROTATION (changing the crop grown each year), the farmer can keep a good
soil for many years.
10. Advantages Organic farming Fewer workers neededFewer blemishes on crops Produce
is cheaper Large numbers of animals kept in ideal conditions Bigger yields from land
available Antibiotics use keeps animals healthy Use of hormones increases meat
production Soil structure is better Less harmful to environment More birds and insects
Animals lead happier lives No harmful chemicals – healthier?
11. Man-made chemicals used Chemicals stay in soil Organic farming Natural predators
destroyed Chemicals wash into rivers Animals live in crowded conditions Smaller
yields Hedgerow habitats destroyed More blemishes on crops More expensive More
farm workers needed Disadvantages
12. Modern Chemical Farming creates “Dead Soil” Acidic soils with few
microorganisms Lacking in micro elements, trace elements, poor vitality Almost O
organic matter
13. Organic Farming creates “Living Soil” Full of life with microorganism, fungi, worms
and termites. Very rich in macro and micro elements, trace elements, and vital energy
Very rich in organic matter.
14.
 BIOMINERALIZATION

Biomineralization is the study of biologically produced materials, such as shells, bone, and
teeth, and the processes that lead to the formation of these hierarchically structured
organic−inorganic composites. The mechanical, optical, and magnetic properties of these
materials are exploited by the organisms for a variety of purposes. These properties are often
optimized for a given function as compared to the properties of a biological materials of similar
composition. Materials chemists are intrigued by the exceptional control organisms exert over
the composition, crystallography, morphology, and materials properties of biominerals and the
mild conditions (physiological temperature, pressure, and pH) required to form them. In recent
years, therefore, the field of biomineralization has expanded to include the application of
strategies adapted from biology to the production of synthetic materials. Biomineralization is
by definition a multidisciplinary field that draws on researchers from biology, chemistry,
geology, materials science, and beyond. In this issue, we focus on the role that chemistry,
broadly defined, has played and will continue to play in the development of this growing field.

The impact of chemistry in the field of biomineralization can roughly be divided into three
different areas: (1) the characterization of the crystallography, composition, and biochemistry
of the biological materials; (2) the design of in vitro model systems to answer questions from
biology such as testing hypotheses regarding the interactions between the organic matrix and
the crystals and the role of biomacromolecules in controlling nucleation and growth of crystals;
and (3) the development of new synthetic methods, which are based upon the biological
systems, for controlling crystal morphology, polymorph, and materials properties, leading to
new classes of organic−inorganic composites. All three of these approaches are highlighted in
the 22 articles assembled for this issue.

The articles are arranged loosely by mineral class (e.g., carbonates, phosphates). Within each
section, the articles are further organized beginning with reviews that cover fundamental
aspects of biomineralization and moving to reviews that address bioinspired materials
applications. The first review by Meldrum and Cölfen serves as an excellent introduction to
many of these topics. Specifically, they provide an overview of recent developments in
understanding crystal nucleation and growth mechanisms in both biological and synthetic
systems and how these processes can be modified to form crystals with unusual morphologies,
structures, and properties.
The processes of biomineralization are often under strict biological control and involve the
interactions of a large number of biological macromolecules. In recent years, much progress
has been made toward determining the sequences and solution-state structures of these
biomacromolecules as well as establishing structure−function relationships for them.

In addition to the control exerted by the organisms over carbonate crystallization, the
environment in which these organisms grow can also substantially influence the production of
these minerals. Stanley reviews this hotly debated, and timely, topic in an article that addresses
the effects of seawater chemistry (e.g., calcium-to-magnesium ratio and pH) and atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels on mineralization in coccolithophores, calcareous algae, corals, and other
carbonate-producing organisms.

The last two articles in the carbonate section cover the work of polymer and organic chemists
toward the design of synthetic additives to control the crystallographic orientation,
morphology, and polymorph of carbonate-based minerals. Sommerdijk and de With provide a
thorough review of the rapidly growing field of bioinspired “designer” small molecules and
interfaces (e.g., self-assembled monolayers and Langmuir monolayers) to control the
nucleation, polymorphism, structure, and composition of crystals and organic−inorganic
composites. In her article, Gower discusses the role of amorphous calcium carbonate
precursors, which are stabilized by polyelectrolytes, in the formation of crystalline structures
in both synthetic and biological systems.

After the carbonate minerals, the phosphates are the second most prevalent family of
biominerals. Since our bones and teeth are both composed of carbonated apatite (an
orthophosphate) crystals embedded within an organic framework, there is an emphasis in the
biomedical community on such systems. We begin this section with a review by Wang and
Nancollas describing the physical chemistry of the orthophosphates. A fundamental
understanding of crystal growth and dissolution for this class of materials in vitro is essential
for analyzing and modeling the biological systems.

A family of highly phosphorylated proteins is closely associated with the production of

phosphate minerals in vivo. George and Veis review both in vitro and in vivo experiments that
elucidate the role these proteins play in controlling the biomineralization of orthophosphates,
such as carbonated apatite. In Omelon and Grynpas’s contribution, they discuss
polyphosphates, an interesting class of biomacromolecules whose role in biomineralization is
just recently becoming appreciated.
Boskey and Roy review the specialized cell-culture techniques, that have been developed to
study biomineralization of bone and teeth in vitro. Of key importance in these studies is the
identification and characterization of the mineral phase and the “biological relevance” of the
mineral phase that is formed. This review addresses both of these issues and provides
guidelines for designing future cell-based studies of mineralization.

The characterization, in situ, of the macro- and microscopic 3-D structures of biomineralized
tissues is essential for understanding the spatial distribution of minerals during tissue
development. Neues and Epple review the emerging field of synchrotron radiation
microcomputer tomography (µCT) for imaging mineralized structures, at high resolution, in a
nondestructive manner.

Immense attention has been paid to the development of osteoconductive and osteoinductive
materials, materials that can stimulate the production of new bone in vivo, for use in biomedical
implants for the repair of damaged hard tissues. LeGeros reviews different calcium phosphate
based materials for this purpose. In the contribution from Stupp and co-workers, they present
recent developments in the design of structurally complex organic templates to promote
hydroxyapatite mineralization and bone repair, in vivo. Unlike traditional biomaterials, these
newer synthetic constructs often incorporate multiple components, each with a specific
biological function (e.g., chemical signals to promote both cell adhesion and mineralization).

In addition to the carbonates and the phosphates, there is a wide range of other inorganic
minerals and organic crystals formed by biological organisms. We conclude this issue with a
series of articles that cover some of these other systems and the techniques used to study them.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) can provide insight into the dynamics of crystallization,
including the mechanisms by which small molecules and proteins can inhibit and/or modify
crystal growth. Qiu and Orme review applications of AFM to study, among other systems, the
crystallization of calcium oxalate, one of the main components of kidney stones. In recent
years, molecular dynamics and other computational techniques have been applied to modeling
crystal nucleation and growth. Harding and co-workers review how these computational
techniques are applied to a range of biological and synthetic systems to provide insight into the
role of the organic−inorganic interface in controlling crystallization.

The next articles cover three specific examples of different types of biominerals and the
biological organisms that produce them. Hildebrand reviews the formation of amorphous silica
by diatoms, with a focus on how genomics can contribute to our understanding of
biomineralization processes. Faivre and Schüler examine the formation of magnetic minerals
by magnetotactic bacteria and the macromolecules that are involved. The only review in this
issue to address organic crystal growth in biology is by Weissbuch and Leiserowitz, who
discuss the formation of hemozoin crystals by the parasite that causes malaria. In particular,
they highlight the role that molecular recognition and crystal design can play in developing
novel treatments for malaria by inhibiting the growth of hemozoin crystals and, thus, poisoning
the parasites.

Finally, two reviews highlight bioinspired materials synthesis based upon a wide range of
mineralizing systems. Brutchey and Morse focus on a protein, silicatein, which is isolated from
the silica spicules of a marine sponge, to design new polymers and interfaces to control the
growth of inorganic materials, including some that are important for energy production and
storage. Dickerson, Sandhage, and Naik address the rapidly emerging field of protein- and
peptide-directed synthesis of inorganic materials, including ceramic oxides, semiconductors,
and metallic nanoparticles.
 BIOFUELS

1. WHAT ARE BIOFUELS? Biofuels are liquid fuels that have been developed from
other materials such as plants or animal waste matter.
2. WHY BIOFULES? Biofuels production and consumption ensures that the natural
Carbon cycle to be 100% achieved which completely eliminates the continuous increase
in Carbon Dioxide rates in the atmosphere which in turns will have the greatest effect
on the environment and a way to end global warming For example, A crop of plants
used to produce a barrel of biofuel will absorb exactly the same amount of Carbon
Dioxide as emitted from burning the barrel produced.
3. TYPES OF BIOFULES First generation biofuels Bioalcohol Biodiesel Vegetable oil
Biogas Syngas Solid biofuels Second generation biofuels Main two types
4. BIOETHANOL Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from
carbohydrates produces in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sugarcane. Cellulosic
biomass, derived from non-food sources such as trees and grasses, is also being
developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Used to substitute petrol fuel for the
road transport vehicles One of the widely used alternative automotive fuels in the
world (Brazil & USA are the largest ethanol producers) Much more environment
friendly and have low toxicity level
5. Bioethanol Production
6. Applications of Bioethanol: Transport fuel to replace gasoline Fuel for power
generation by thermal combustion Fuel for fuel cells by thermochemical reaction Fuels
in cogeneration systems Feedstock in the chemical industry Blending ethanol with
small portion of gasoline is more cost-effective
7. Advantages of Bioethanol Burns more cleanly as a result of more complete
combustion Reduces greenhouse gases It is carbon neutral Decrease in ozone
formation Renewable energy resource Fuel spills are more easily biodegraded or
diluted to non-toxic concentration Any plant can be used for production of
biooethanol : it only has to contain sugar and starch
8. Disadvantages of Bioethanol Large amount of arable land is required to grow crops,
natural habitats would be destroyed. Due to lucrative prices of bioethanol, some
farmers may sacrifice food crops for biofuels which will increase food prices around
 the world. During production of bioethanol, huge amount of carbon dioxide is
released. Not as efficient as petroleum Cold start difficulties Difficulty in
transportation
9. BIODIESEL Biodiesel is a variety of ester-based oxygenated fuels derived from
natural, renewable biological sources such as vegetable oils. Biodiesel operates in
compression ignition engines like petroleum diesel thereby requiring no essential
engine modifications. Unlike fossil diesel, pure biodiesel is biodegradable, non- toxic
and essentially free of sulphur and aromatics.
10. Biodiesel Production
11. Advantages of Biodiesel Biodiesel is environmentfriendly. It can help reduce
dependency on foreign oil. It helps to lubricate the engine itself, decreasing engine
wear. It can be used in almost any diesel with little or no engine modification. It is
safer than conventional diesel. Less global warming.
12. Disadvantages of Biodiesel Biodiesel emission increases Nox in atmosphere
Biodiesel behaves as a solvent Slightly decreases fuel economy Cost varies
according to feedstock used and market conditions.
13. USES OF BIOFUELS Cars and Trucks: Diesel cars and trucks can run on biodiesel.
Aircraft: Recent testing has shown the viability of biofuel use in the aviation industry,
and use of biofuels to power aircraft is expected to increase substantially in the next
decade. Off-Road Equipment: A large percentage of off-road equipment -- such as
vehicles used in agriculture, mining, forestry, construction, and power and heat
production -use diesel fuel, making this equipment suitable for biodiesel use Small
Engines: Small engines, like those found in lawn mowers and chainsaws, can use
ethanol blends up to 10 percent without problems
14. ADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS Cost: Biofuels have the potential to be
significantly less expensive than gasoline and other fossil fuels. Source material:
Whereas oil is a limited resource that comes from specific materials, biofuels can be
manufactured from a wide range of materials including crop waste, manure, and other
byproducts. This makes it an efficient step in recycling. Renewability: It takes a very
long time for fossil fuels to be produced, but biofuels are much more easily renewable
as new crops are grown and waste material is collected. Security: Biofuels can be
produced locally, which decreases the nation's dependence upon foreign energy
Economic stimulation: Because biofuels are produced locally, biofuel manufacturing
 plants can employ hundreds or thousands of workers, creating new jobs in rural areas.
Lower carbon emissions: When biofuels are burned, they produce significantly less
carbon output and fewer toxins, making them a safer alternative to preserve atmospheric
quality and lower air pollution.
15. DISADVANTAGES OF BIOFUELS Production carbon emissions: Several
studies have been conducted to analyze the carbon footprint of biofuels, and while they
may be cleaner to burn, there are strong indications that the process to produce the fuel
including the machinery necessary to cultivate the crops and the plants to produce the
fuel - has hefty carbon emissions. High cost: To refine biofuels to more efficient energy
outputs, and to build the necessary manufacturing plants to increase biofuel quantities,
a high initial investment is often required. Food prices: As demand for food crops such
as corn grows for biofuel production, it could also raise prices for necessary staple food
crops. Food shortages: There is concern that using valuable cropland to grow fuel crops
could have an impact on the cost of food and could possibly lead to food shortages.
Water use: Massive quantities of water are required for proper irrigation of biofuel
crops as well as to manufacture the fuel, which could strain local and regional water
resources.
16. CONCLUSIONs Biofuels can be defined as solid, liquid or gas fuel derived from
recently dead biological material which differ it from fossil fuels that derived from long
dead biological material. Biofuels production and consumption will contribute in
solving the global warming. It ensures that the natural Carbon cycle to be 100%
achieved. Agriculture sources produce many types of agro fuel, but the two main
products are: ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is produced from sugar crops, starches and
cellulose. It produced by fermentation process of materials containing sugar. While
biodiesel is produced from soybean, oils, seed oils and fats. These agro fuels
economically, creates permanent jobs, and environmentally reduces air pollutant
emissions. However, using agriculture crops in their production results in increasing
essential food crops' prices. Many biofuels are now produced from organic wastes
such as biodiesel which produced from cooking oils, methane from anaerobic digestion
and ethanol from wood waste.
AGRICULTURE CHEMICALS

AGROCHEMICALS

Chemical products used in agriculture are termed as AGROCHEMICAL.

Types of agrochemical:

Pesticides
Herbicides
Insecticides
Fungicides
Synthetic fertilisers
Hormones
Growth agents
Animal manure

Agrochemicals are used to improve quantity and quality of food.

Benefits of Agrochemicals:

Improves plant nutrition

Improve economic production
Improve quality of life

Demerits of Agrochemicals:

Reduce soil fertility

Harmful to the environment
Prefer organic farming over
Synthetic agrochemicals.

CROP PROTECTORS

PESTICIDES 1.It is used to kill,repel or control plants1.It is used to kill,repel or control plants
and animals that are considered as pestsand animals that are considered as pests are called
pesticides.are called pesticides. 2.Pests are two types:2.Pests are two types: a)Inorganic
chemicalsa)Inorganic chemicals,that doesn't contain,that doesn't contain carbon.carbon. •
Obtained from mineral ores extracted from theObtained from mineral ores extracted from the
earth.earth. • They include copper sulphate, coppper andThey include copper sulphate, coppper
and sulphur etc.sulphur etc.

Organic pesticides, that contains carbon.,that contains carbon. • Obtained from plant and
materials. Obtained from plant and materials. • They includeThey include
organochlorine,organophosphorus andorganochlorine,organophosphorus and pyrethroid
compounds.pyrethroid compounds. 3.Act on nervous system of insects or by3.Act on nervous
system of insects or by inhibiting the growth.inhibiting the growth. 4.Ex:
Malathion,Endosulfan and Lindan.4.Ex: Malathion,Endosulfan and Lindan.

HERBICIDES 1. Destroy weeds and unwanted vegetation..Destroy weeds and unwanted

vegetation. 2.Crop protector.2. Crop protector. 3.Natural herbicides, allelopathic
chemicals.3.Natural herbicides, allelopathic chemicals. 4.Some herbicides act on a particular
class4.Some herbicides act on a particular class of plant growth regulators.of plant growth
regulators. Ex: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid,whichEx: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid,which inhibits the growth of dicotyledons plantinhibits the growth of dicotyledons plant
not monocotyledons.not monocotyledons. 5.Some herbicides persists in enviornment.5.Some
herbicides persists in enviornment.
INSECTICIDES 1 1. Eliminates insects that are harmful to1.Eliminates insects that are harmful
to the plants. The plants. • 2. Action depends on chemical2.Action depends on chemical
composition of insecticides:composition of insecticides: • On nervous system orOn nervous
system or • May harm exoskeleton.May harm exoskeleton. 3.Ex: Insect growth regulators
like3.Ex: Insect growth regulators like pyriproxyfenpyriproxyfen and methoprene,this don't
allow insectand methoprene,this don't allow insect to grow or lay eggs properly but don'tto
grow or lay eggs properly but don't necessarily kill themnecessarily kill them
FUNGICIDES 1.Removes fungal species that destroy1.Removes fungal species that destroy
plantsplants 2.Damages fungal cell memberanes or2.Damages fungal cell memberanes or
interfere with the cellular machinery ofinterfere with the cellular machinery of fungi that
involves in energy production.fungi that involves in energy production. 3.Eg: Benzimidazole,
Imidazole, triozole,3.Eg: Benzimidazole, Imidazole, triozole, and dicarboximide
dicarboximide.

SOIL SUPPLEMENTS
FERTILISER 1. Definition: Any organic or inorganic chemical supplements added to the soil
to provide essential nutrients for supporting plant growth and development called fertiliser.
2.Provides micro and macronutrients. 3.micronutrients: B, Zn,Cu, Fe etc. •Macronutrients’, Ca,
S,Mg,K etc. 4.Two type of fertiliser: •Inorganic •Organic
INORGANIC FERTILISERSINORGANIC FERTILISERS 1. Easily dissolved in soil.1.
Easily dissolved in soil. 2.Rate of uptake by plants is high.2. Rate of uptake by plants is high.
3.High concentration of micro and3.High concentration of micro and macronutrients.
Macronutrients. 4.DISADVANTAGE:4. DISADVANTAGE: • They contaminate the water,
soil and They contaminate the water, soil and environment. Environment. 5.Eg: Nitrogen and
Potassium fertilisers.5. Eg: Nitrogen and Potassium fertilisers.
ORGANIC FERTILISERS 1. Macro and micronutrients are released1.Macro and
micronutrients are released during the decay of organic matter. During the decay of organic
matter. 2.Very slow process.2. Very slow process. 3.Low concentration of plant nutrients.3.
Low concentration of plant nutrients. 4.Improve fertility of soil.4. Improve fertility of soil.
5.Organic nutrients increases the organisms.5. Organic nutrients increases the organisms. •
DISADVANTAGE: • May contain disease causing organisms. May contain disease causing
organisms.
HORMONES/GROWTH AGENTS 1. Are of Endogenous origin and are1.Are of Endogenous
origin and are synthesised by plants. Synthesised by plants. 2.These are Growth regulators
performing2.These are Growth regulators performing specific function in overall development
of specific function in overall development of the plant. the plant. Eg. hormone/growth
regulator for Eg. hormone/growth regulator for enhancing root growth, controlling plant
enhancing root growth, controllimg plant height, improving fruit yeild etc. height, improving
fruit yeild etc.
IMPACT ON THETHE ENVIRONMENT

AIR POLLUTION ● The pesticides/ herbicides/ insecticides which are suspended in the air
contribute to air pollution, when they are carried away to other areas due to wind. ● The
phenomenon is also known as pesticide drift.
WATER POLLUTION ● It refers to pollution of water bodies such as ponds, lakes or rivers
due to unintended mix up of synthetic herbicides/ fungicides/ pesticides
SOIL POLLUTION ● It generally occurs when many of the pesticides/ insecticides/ herbicides
is used for a prolonged period of time which adversely affects the soil quality and therefore
polluting it.
ORGANIC FARMING ● Organic farming is an alternative form of agriculture in which a
variety of techniques such as crop rotation, green manure and compost are used. ● Helps the
soil in water retention, which increases productivity during drought