Unit 3:

Group and Subgroup

Algebraic Structure
We are all familiar with addition and multiplication of real numbers. Both addition and multiplication
combine two numbers to obtain one number. For example, addition combines 2 and 3 to obtain 5. We
consider addition and multiplication to be binary operations.
So we can look at these operations as functions on the set R × R={ ( a , b ) :a ∈ R∧b ∈ R } defined by
+: R × R → R
( a , b ) → a+b i.e. + ( a ,b )=a+ b
and ∙ : R× R → R
(a , b )→ a ∙ b i.e. ∙ ( a , b )=a ∙b
Definition: Any mapping ¿ from S x S into S, where S is any non-empty set is called a binary operation on S.
For each ( a , b ) ∈ S × S , we will denote the element ¿ ( ( a ,b ) )=a∗b .

Remark: Given a set S, in defining a binary operation  on S, one must be sure the following
i)  assigns exactly one element to each ordered pair of elements of S. i.e.  is well defined
ii) The element assigned to each ordered pair of elements of S is again in S. i.e. S is closed under .
Example: Addition and multiplication are binary operations on the set Z so that this set is closed under
these operations. However, Z is not closed under the operation of division since 1 ÷ 2 is not an integer.
Examples: Let S = {0, 1}, we define ⊕ on S as follows:

0⊕ 0=0

0⊕ 1=1

1⊕ 0=1

1⊕ 1=1

Now, ⊕ : S×S → S is a function and hence a binary operation on S.

Note: When we have a finite number of elements in a set, we may define the binary operation by a table.

The binary operation ⊕ defined on S = {0, 1} is given by the following table:

⊕ 0 1

0 0 1
1 1 1

Definition: A non-empty set with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic structure.

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An algebraic structure with one binary operation is usually denoted as an ordered pair (S, Δ ) where S is a
non-empty set and Δ is a binary operation on S. Similarly, an algebraic structure with two binary
operations is denoted as an order triad (S, Δ ,), where S is a non-empty set and Δ ,  are binary
operation on S.
Examples
a) ¿, where + is ordinary addition of numbers, is an algebraic structure,
b) (R ,+, .), where +, . are ordinary additions and multiplication of numbers, is an algebraic structure.

c) Let E be any non-empty set and P(E) be the power set of E. (P(E), ¿,∩¿ ¿), where ¿,∩¿ ¿ are the union
and intersection operation is an algebraic structure.
d) Let a and b integers with b >1. Then there exist unique integers and r such that a = qb + r where r ∈
{0,1, 2, . . ., b-1}

Define ⊕ n and ⨀ n on Zn as follows:-

∀ a , b ∈ z n , a ⊕n b=r , where r =¿ remainder when a+ b is divided by n and a ⨀n b= r’ where r ’ is

⊕ n and ⊗n
the remainder when ab is divided by n . are called addition modulo n and
⊕ n and ⊗n
multiplication modulo n respectively. Clearly, are binary operations on zn.

In particular, Let z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}

Example: Addition and multiplication modulo 4 define by the following tables.
⊕4 0 1 2 3
⊗4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 0
1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 0 1
2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2
3 0 3 2 1

Can you explain

( z 4 ,⊕ 4 ,⊗ n ) is an algebraic structure with the two binary operations?

Definition: Let X be a non empty set and * be a binary operation on X. A subset H of X is said to be closed

under the binary operation *, if a∗b ∈ H for all a , b ∈ H

Example: Let +¿ and ∙ be the usual binary operations of addition and multiplication on the set Z , and let
H=¿. Determine whether H is closed under addition and multiplication.
Solution: 1=12 ∈ H and 4=2 2 ∈ H but 1+4=12 +22=5 ∉ H . Thus H is not closed under addition.

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Let r ∈ H and s ∈ H , then r =n2 and s=m2 for some n∧m∈ Z +¿ ¿. Consequently, rs=n2 m2=( nm )2, since
+¿ ¿
nm ∈ Z , rs ∈ H , so H is closed under multiplication.

Definition: Let * be a binary operation on a set X. Then

1. The binary operation * is said to be commutative iff a * b = b * a for all a , b ∈ X .

2. The binary operation * is said to be associative iff a* (b* c) = (a* b) * c for all a, b, c ∈ X

3. An element e of X is said to be a left identity of X with respect to * if e * a = a for all a ∈ X .

4. An element f of X is said to be right identity of X with respect to * if a * f = a for all a ∈ X .

5. If an element e of X which is a left as well as a right identity then it is called an identity of X.

i) If e is an identity of X under * and a ∈ X , then a’ ∈ X is called Left inverse

ii) right inverse of a according to a’* a = e or a’* a = e.

If an element a “is both a right and left inverse of a, then a” is called an inverse of a and a itself is
said to be an invertible element.
Example: Determine which of the following binary operations satisfy commutative and associate property.
a+b +ba ∀ a,b,c∈Q
i) ( a b )=
2
a+b ∀ a, b ∈Q
ii) a b= 3

Solution: Associative: i) (a ∘ b) ∘ c ¿ a ∘ (b ∘ c) for some a , b , c ∈Q

e.g ( 1∘ 2 ) ∘0=5/ 2∘0=5/ 4 and 1∘ ( 2∘0 ) =1∘1=1

ii) (a ∘ b) ∘ c ¿ a ∘ (b ∘ c) for some a , b , c ∈Q

1
( 1∘ 0 ) ∘0= 13 ∘0= 19 1∘ 0= 3
e.g. and 1 ∘ (0 ∘ 0) =
a+b+ ab b+ a+ba
a ∘b= = =b ∘a
Commutative: i) 2 2
a+b b +a
= =b ∘a
ii) a ∘ b = 3 3
Example: Consider the binary operation ¿ defined on the set N by a∗b=a b. Then 2∗3=23=8 and
2
3∗2=3 =9. That is, 2∗3≠ 3∗2.
Note: When a set with a binary operation is given by a table then the operation is
commutative iff equal elements appear in all positions that are symmetrically
placed relative to the diagonal from upper left to lower right. That is, to check
whether an operation defined by a table is commutative, simply draw a diagonal

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 line from upper left to lower right, and see if the table is symmetric about this line. For example, the
operation * defined by the table beside is commutative.

Class work: 1. Consider (Z,*) where a*b = a+b-ab . Show that (Z,*) has the identity element 0.
2. Consider (Z,*) where a*b=a+b-1. Show that (Z,*) has the identity element 1.
e) Consider (z,*)
a * b = a+b-1
identity element is 1
inverse of a is 2-a

f) (R,*)
a*b = a+b – ab
0 is the identity element
a*b = 0 ⇒ a+b-ab = 0
a
⇒ b=
a−1
a = 1 ha no inverse. The other elements of R have inverse.

Theorem: Let * be a binary operation on a set X. Then the following holds true:

1. If X has a left identity and a right identity for * then they are equal.
2. If X has an identity (two-sided) element for *, then it is unique.

Proof: 1. Let e and f be left and right identity for * in X respectively. then e * f = f(why?) and e * f = e

Consequently e = f
2. Let e 1 and e2 be two identities of X. Then since e 1 is a left identity and e2 a right identity, by the

first part we have e1 = e2.

Definition: Let (E, ,) be an algebraic structure, then we say

i)  is left- distributive over  if a  (b c) = (a  b)  (a  c) ∀ a,b,c∈ E

ii)  is right distributive over  if (a b)  c = (a  c)  (bc) ∀ a,b,c∈ E

Examples:
a) Consider (N, +,.)
b) Then . is both left and right distributive over +. Is + is distributive over. ? Let E be any non-empty

set. Consider (P(E),¿,∩¿ ¿).

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 Then ¿ is both left and right distributive over ¿ and ¿ is both left and right distributive over ¿ .
Note: It is very easy to see the commutative property of binary operations from the table.
If the table is symmetric with respect to the principal diagonal, then we know the operation is
commutative. For the associative property, however, we have no such easy test.
Example:  1 2 3
1 3 2 1
2 2 1 3
 is commutative.
3 1 3 2

Example: If  is an associative binary operation of E, then x ∈ E admits at most one inverse for .
Proof suppose y and z are inverse of x for .
Then z = z  e
= z  (xy) why?
= (zx) y why?
= ey why?
=y
ab
a∗b=
Class work: For any a,b∈Q , define 2 . Show that Z is not closed under *, however E, set of all

even integers is closed und *. Verify further that * is associative, commutative,

Example 3: Let S be the set of all mappings of {1,2,3} into {1,2,3}. Then (S,o) is a algebraic structure, where

0 is interpreted as the usual composition of mappings. The composition makes sense, for if ¿ , β ∈ S , then
¿ { 1 ,2 , 3 } → { 1 , 2, 3 } and β ={ 1, 2 , 3 } → { 1, 2 , 3 }

Therefore¿ ∘ β , the composition of ¿ and β is defined by ¿ ∝ ∘ β =¿ ¿ , and is once

again a mapping of {1,2,3} into itself. (S,o) is indeed a algebraic structure.

Example 4. Let o be the binary operation in Q, the rational numbers, defined by a ∘b=a+ b+ab . Then
( Q ,∘ ) is a algebraic structure, because for every pair of rational numbers a and b a ∘b defines a unique
rational numbers. a+b+ab.
1. Are the following algebraic structures?
i) (S,o), where S = {1,2,3,4} and ioj = 1 for i & j elements of S.
ii) (Z,-), the set of integers with the usual subtraction of integers as binary operation.
iii) (P,-), the set of positive integers with the usual subtraction as binary operation.

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 iv) (Q, ) the set of rational numbers with the usual binary operation of division.
v) (Z, ), the set of integers with the usual binary operation of division.
Solutions:
i) (S,o) is a algebraic structure since o is clearly a binary operation in S.

ii) (Z, -) is a algebraic structure, for if a , b ∈ z , then a-b is a unique element of Z.

iii) (P, -) is not a algebraic structure since a−b ∉ p for all a , b ∈ p therefore- is not a binary
operation in p.

iv) (Q, ) is not a algebraic structure because a  o is not defined for any a ∈ Q and hence  is
not a binary operation in Q.

v) (Z, ) is not a algebraic structure since a÷b ∉ z for all a , b ∈ z, eg. 4÷5 ∉ z . Therefore
division is not a binary operation in Z.
2. Is (z,o) a algebraic structure if o is defined as

i) a ∘b=√ a+b

ii) a ∘b=( a+b )2

iii) a ∘b=a−b−ab

iv) a ∘b=0

v) a ∘b=a ?
Solution
All but (i) define a binary operation in Z. Therefore (R,o) is a algebraic structure is (ii) through (v)

The multiplication o in (i) does not define a binary operation in Z since √ a+b is not always an integer.

3. Let S be any non-empty set and T the set of all subsets of S. Are ¿ ¿ algebraic
structures?

Solution:

Both intersection ¿ and union ¿ are binary operation on T, for the intersection or union of two subjects

of S is again a unique subset of S. Thus ¿ ¿ are algebraic structures.

Equality of algebraic structures

Definition: Two algebraic structures are equal if and only if they have the

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 same carriers and the same binary operations.
Remember, a binary operation was defined as a mapping and two mappings are equal if and only if they
have the same domain and codomain, and the image of each element is the same under both mappings.
Self test
1. Which of the following pairs define equal algebraic structures
a) (Z, +) and (Z, *), where a * b = a+b
b) (Z, -) and (Z,0), where aob = a – b
c) (Z, x), where aob = a for all a and b in Z and (Z,x) where
axb = b for all a and b in Z.

Solution
The algebraic structures in (a) are clearly the same. So too are the algebraic structures in (b), In (c), (z,o) is

not the same as (Z,x); for if a≠b , aob¿ axb.

Commutative and Associative Algebraic structures

Definition of commutative and associative algebraic structures

Let (z,+) be the algebraic structure of integers under the usual operation of addition. Then
a+b = b+a and

(a+b)+c = a+(b+c) for all a , b , c ∈ z

Similarly if (Z,.) is the algebraic structure of integers under multiplication,
1. a.b = b.a and

2. (a.b).c = a.(b-c), for all a , b , c ∈ z

We term a algebraic structure satisfying (1) commutative or abelian, and a algebraic structure satisfying (2)
associative or a semigroup.
Thus a semigroup is an associative algebraic structure.
Of course it is not clear thre are non-commutative algebraic structures which are definitely not
commutative, and similarly it is not clear that there are non-associative algebraic structures.
Example
Let G = {1,2} and Let o be the following binary operation in G:
0 1 2
1 1 1

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 2 2 1

Then (G,o) is a algebraic structure. Observe that

1o2 = 1, but 2o1 = 2, So G is not commutative.
Furthermore, (2o1)o2 = 2o2 = 1, but 2o(1o2) = (2o1) = 2, So G is also non-associative, i.e G is not a semi-
group.
Note that The order of a algebraic structure (G,N) is the number of elements in G and is denoted by |G|;
(G,N) is infinite if |G| is infinite, and finite if |G| is finite
Activity 15 Discuss the following Problems [in pair]
1. Construct an example of a commutative algebraic structure of order 3.
Solution: Let S = {a,b,c} and the binary operation o be defined by the multiplication table.

o A B c
a A B c
b B A c
c C C a

(s,o) is clearly a commutative algebraic structure.

*
2. Show that the set Q of non zero rational numbers with binary operation the usual division
of rational numbers, is a algebraic structure. Is it commutative? Is it associative?
Solution:
a c
and
If b d are any two elements of Q*, then

a c ad
÷ =
b d bc is a unique element in Q*

( adbc ≠0 sin ce a ,b ,c , d≠0) *

. Therefore division is a binary operation in Q . However, division is neither

commutative
( 1 1
2 4
1 1 1
e . g . ÷ =2≠ = ÷
2 4 2 nor associative ) 1 1 1 1 3 2
(
1 1 1
e . g . ÷ ÷ = ÷ = ≠6= ÷ ÷
2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 ( ) ( ) )
IDENTITIES AND INVERSES IN ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
a. The identify of a algebraic structure
Let G be a algebraic structure written multiplicatively.

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 An element e in G is called an identity element of G if eg = ge = g for every g ∈G .
For example in the multiplicative algebraic structure Z of integers. 1 is an identity element. A less
natural example is the algebraic structure {1,2,3} with multiplication table given by
* 1 2 3
1 2 3 1
2 3 1 2
3 1 2 3

The element 3 is an identity element of G since

3 * 1 = 1=1*3
3 * 2 = 2=2*3
3 * 3 = 3=3*3
One might ask whether or not a algebraic structure can have more than one identify element.
Theorem: If a algebraic structure G has an identity element, it has precisely one identity element. In other
words if e and e’ are identity elements of G, then e = e’
Proof Since e is an identity element of G, ee’ = e’.
But e’ is also an
identity element of G. Hence ee’=e and so e = e’
Answer the following questions independently.
1. Which of the following algebraic structures have identity elements?
a. The algebraic structure (z,+) under the usual operation of addition.
b. The algebraic structure of non zero rational numbers under division.
c. The algebraic structure of complex numbers under multiplication.

d. The algebraic structure of all mappings of {1,2,3,4} into it self under the composition of
mappings.
e. The algebraic structure with carrier {1,2} and multiplication table.

* 1 2
1 2 2
2 1
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 * 1 2
1 1 2
b) 2 2 1

a)

Solution
a) (Z,+) ha the identity element 0, since
0 + Z = Z + 0 = Z for all z ∈ Z
b) If this algebraic structure had an identity element e, then
e÷q=q for all q in the algebraic structure. In particular

1
1÷2= ≠2
e÷ e= e and so e = 1. But 2
* 1 2 * 1 2
Hence there is no identity element.
1 1 1 1 1 2
c) Recall that a complex number is any number of
2 1 1 2 1 2
the form a + bi where

a , b ∈ R and i=√ −1 .
1 + 0i is the identity element of this algebraic structure,
since (a +bi) (1+0i) = a+ 0ai + 0bi2 + bi = a + bi = (1+0i)(a+bi)
d) Exercises
e) Exercises
Inverses in a algebraic structure
Observe that; If we use multiplicative notation for algebraic structures, we shall for the most part reserve
the symbol 1 for the identity element.
In the multiplicative algebraic structure of non zero rational numbers one talks about inverses; for
1 1 1
2× =1= ×2
examples, 2 is the inverse of 2, the determining factor being 2 2 .

In general if G is any algebraic structure with an identity we term h an inverse of g, ( h , g ∈G ) if gh = 1 = hg

26. Show that (S3, o) is not commutative

Define ϕ : { 1 ,2 , 3 } → { 1 ,2 , 3 }
ϕ :(1 )=3 , ϕ ( 2 ) =1 , ϕ ( 3 )=2
ϕ : { 1 ,2 , 3 } → { 1 ,2 , 3 }

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 ϕ :(1 )=2 , ϕ ( 2 ) =1, ϕ ( 3 )=3
( ϕ ∘ϕ )( 1 ) =1
( ϕ ∘ϕ )( 1 ) =3
Hence S3 is not commutative
Remark: Sn is not commutative if n>1

Define ϕ : { 1 ,2 . .. , n } → { 1 ,2 , .. . , n }

Define ϕ and ϕ as above S3 and identify for k >4.

Remark Sn has n! Elements
Definition A non – empty set S together with a binary operation (.) in S is called a group if

i) there exists an identity element (usually denoted by) 1 ∈ S

i.e a. 1 = a = 1 . a ∀ a ∈ S

ii) for every choice of the elements a, b,, c ∈ S

(a.b).c = a. (b.c)
Thus (i) and (ii) are conditions for (S, .) to be a semi-
group with identity.

iii) every element a ∈ S has an inverse in S, i.e there is an

element b ∈ S such that a.b = 1 = b. a

This element b is often denoted by a-1.

Examples of group of numbers

Example 1. The additive group of integers
I. Let Z be the set of integers
II. Let + be the binary operation of addition in Z.

III. n + o = n = o + n for every n ∈ Z . Thus (Z, +) has an identity element.

IV. If l, m, n, are integers, (l + m) + n = l + (m + n)
i.e (Z, +) is a semi-group

V. If n ∈ Z , then -n in z has the property

n + (-n) = 0 = (-n) + n
i.e -n is an inverse of n in (Z, +)
Thus (Z, +) is a group. This group is usually referred to as the additive group of integers.

Example.4 :The multiplicative group of nonzero rational (Q*,.)

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 a) Let Q* be the set of nonzero rational.
b) Let . be the binary operation of multiplication i.e the usual multiplication of rational numbers.

c) The rational number 1 is clearly an identity in (Q*,.)

d) If a, b, c∈Q∗¿ ¿, then (a.b).c = a . (b.c)

1 1 1
a . =1= .a
e) If z∈Q∗¿ ¿, so is a and a a
Thus every element of Q* has an inverse.
Definition: If a group G contains only a finite number of elements, then we say that G is a finite group. If
G is a finite group, then the number of elements in G is called the order of G and is denoted |G| or O(G).
Theorem: If G is a group then
1) Identity element of G is unique

2) Every a ∈ G has unique inverse in G.

3) For every a ∈ G , (a-1)-1 = a

−1
4) For all a , b ∈ G, (ab ) =b−1 a−1
Proof:- 1) suppose e and f be identities of G.
WTS: e = f
ef = f why?_______________________________
also ef = f = e why? _______________________
This proves the uniqueness of identity.

2) Let an element a ∈ G have two inverses, say x and y in G.

WTS: x = y
So xa = e = ax, why?________________________________
and ya = e = ay, why?_______________________________
This gives x = xe =
x (ay) =
(xa)y why?______________
= ey
=y
Hence inverse of a is unique.

3) Since for any a ∈ G , aa-1 = e = a-1a, it follows from definition of inverse that (a-1)-1 = a

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 Now (ab) (b-1 a-1) = [a(bb-1)]a-1 Why? ____________

= (ae) a-1

= aa-1
=e

Also (b-1 a-1) (ab) = b-1 [a-1(ab)] why? _________________

= b-1 [(a-1 a) b]

= b-1 (eb)

= b-1b
=e
Consequently (ab)-1 = b-1 a-1.

Theorem(Cancellation law): Let G be a group then for all a, b, c∈G

ab = ac ⇒ b = c (left cancellation law)
ba = ca ⇒ b = c (right cancellation law)
Proof: ab = ac ⇒ a-1 (ab) = a-1 (ac) Why? ______________________
⇒ (a-1a)b = (a-1 a) c why?__________________
⇒ eb = ec

⇒ b=c

Similarly ba = ca ⇒ (ba)a-1 = (ca) a-1 Why? ______________________

⇒ b(aa-1) = c(aa-1) why?____________________

⇒ be = ce

⇒ b=c

Remark 1: It must be emphasized that the common factor in two equal products in a group can be
cancelled only when it occurs on the same side. Infact for three elements a,b,c
in a group G, ab = ca may not imply b = c in general.
To see this, let S = {1, 2, 3} and the group A(S)

Define f : S → S , g : S → S by
f(1) = 2 and g(1) = 2
f(2) = 3 g(2) = 1
f(3) = 1 g(3) = 3

clearly f, g ∈ A (S ) (the set of all permutations of S)

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 Then fog = go (fof) why?
but f ¿ fof. Show this?
Remark 2. In a semi group the cancellation laws may not holds as is shown by the following example.
Example Set S of all 2 x 2 matrices over integers is a semigroup under multiplication.

Now
A= (10 00 ) , B=( 00 01 )and C=( 01 00 )
are three elements of S such that

AB = AC but B≠C find

i) AB
ii) AC
Remark 3 There are semi-groups which are not groups but they satisfy cancellation laws.
Example The set of natural number under the usual addition (N, +), is an abelian semi –group.

For any a,b,c∈ N a + b = a + c

⇒ b = c, but (N, +) is not a group.

Theorem: Any finite semi-group in which both cancellation laws hold, is a group.
Proof:- Let S be a finite semi-group in which both can cancellation laws hold.
Let S = {a1, a2, a3, . . ., an} ----------------(1)
a ∈S ,
Consider any 1 then

a 1 aℓ , a2 aℓ , a3 aℓ , .. . , an a ℓ -------------- (2)
are all distinct, since for any i and j (1≤i , j≤n )
a i a ℓ =a j a ℓ
⇒ ai = aj why? ___________________________________
ai ∈ S
Hence elements in (2) are all the elements in (1) in possibly some other order. So given any there
a ∈S
exist j such that
a i=a j a ℓ
------------------------------ (3)
a ∈S a =a k aℓ
In particular there exists some k such that ℓ
a a =a i ( a k aℓ )
Then i ℓ

=
( ai ak ) aℓ why ? ________________________________

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⇒ ai =ai ak , ∀ i why ?
____________________________________

Similarly considering the elements ℓ 1

a a , a ℓ a2 , .. . ,aℓ an
and using left cancellation law we can find an element at such that

atai = ai for all i

then we get akai = ai = a1ak for all i = = 1, 2, . . ., n

then what is ak in S?

Let us write e for ak. taking i =k in (3) we can say that there exists am such that
a a
e = ak = m ℓ .
a a , a a ,. .. , a ℓ a n
In the saw way, by considering the elements ℓ 1 ℓ 2 we can find an element au such that

a ℓ a u=e

a u=eau =( am aℓ ) a u
then

= am ( a ℓ au ) why ?
______________________
= am e

= am

and am aℓ = e

=
a ℓ am
a−1
ℓ =am
So
Consequently every element in S has its inverse in S.

S is such that for all a ,b , c ∈ S.

i) a(bc) = (ab)c

ii) There exists e ∈ S such that

ae = a = ea ∀ a ∈ S
−1
iii) Given a ∈ S ,∃a ∈S such that aa-1 = e = a-1 a
Hence S is a group
Theorem Given a, b in a group G, the equations ax = b and ya = b have unique solutions for x and y in G.

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Proof a(a-1 b) = (aa-1)b why? ____________________________
=eb why?___________________________
=b
Therefore x = a-1b is a solution of ax = b in G.

Similarly y = ba-1 is a solution of the equation ya = b in G

The solution is unique why?_______________________________
Theorem: A non – empty set G together with a binary operation denoted multiplication is a group iff

1. a (bc) = (ab) c for all a , b , c ∈G

2. given any a , b ∈ G the equations ax = b and ya = b have solutions in G.

Proof (⇒ )
1) holds true why? ________________________________
2) holds true why? ________________________________
(⇐ ) Let G be a non-empty set with a multiplicative binary operation satisfying (1) and (2) we want to show
G is a group. What is the remaining part to show?

To show this, consider any a ∈ G then by (2) the equation ax = a has solution in G. Thus there exists an

element e ∈ G such that ae = a. Now given b ∈ G, there exist y ∈G such that b = ya why?
________________________
Then be = (ya) e
= y (ae) why?_____________________________________
= ya
=b

So be = b for all b ∈ G

Similarly since the equation ya = a has solution in G there exist f ∈ G such that

fa = a and fb = b ∀ b ∈G , In particular

fe = f since be = b for all b ∈ G

Also fe = e since fb = b for all b ∈ G

Consequently e = f and hence e is the identity of G.
It remains to show every element of G has an inverse

Given a ∈ G by (2) there exist a', a func ∈ G} { ¿ such that

aa’ = e

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 16 | P a g e

 aa” = e
then a’ = ea’
= (a”a) a’ why?_______________________________
= a”(aa’) why?______________________________
= a” e why?_____________________________
= a” and we find that a’a = e = aa’
hence a’ = a-1 exists in G
Therefore G is a group #

Remark If G is a semi-group and if we are given that for all a, b ∈G only the equation ax = b has a
solution in G then G may not be a group. Can you find example?
One example is the following
Let G be any set having at least two elements.

Given a,b∈G define a.b = b

1) Let a, b, c∈G . Then

a(b.c) = a.c = c why? ______________________________________
(a.b).c = b. c = c why?_____________________________________
Hence (ab).c = a(b.c) why?____________________________
2) Since ab = b implies ________________________
is a solution of ax = b.

Consider two distinct elements a, b in G. Then ab = b, b. b = b. Consequently b.b = ab but a≠b So G

does not satisfy _________________________
Hence G is not a group.

Sub group
Definition: A non – empty subset H of a group G is said to be subgroup of G if H itself forms a group.
Notation: H is a subgroup of G is denoted by “ H ¿ G”
Example 1 (R, +) is a group and (Z, +) is a group then (Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) and also (E, +) is a
subgroup of (Z, +),

Consider again (R-{0}, .) where usual multiplication

and ({1, -1},.) is also a group.

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 17 | P a g e

 Then ({1, -1},.) is a subgroup of (R-{0},.)
2. Let G be a group. There are two trivial subgroups of
G, namely
i) G it self and
ii) {e}, the set containing the identity element of the
operation in G.

3. In
G=S 3={ ℓ : {1, 2 , 3 } → {1, 2 ,3 } such that ℓ is 1-1 and
onto}

a) Let H = {I, ℓ } then clearly H  G

if ℓ : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} is defined by

ℓ ( 1)=2
ℓ ( 2)=1
ℓ ( 3)=3 To see this
i) Composition of function is associative
ii) Identity exists

iii) ℓ is the inverse of it self i.e

( ℓ ∘ ℓ ) ( 1 )=ℓ ( ℓ ( 1 ) ) =ℓ ( 2 ) =1
( ℓ ∘ ℓ ) ( 2 )=ℓ ( ℓ ( 2 ) ) =ℓ ( 1 ) =2
( ℓ ∘ ℓ ) ( 3 )=ℓ ( ℓ (3 ) )=ℓ ( 3 )=1
−1
Therefore ℓ =ℓ
Consequently H  G

4. Let H= { I , ψ }
ψ : { 1 ,2 , 3 } → { 1 ,2 , 3 } defined by
ψ ( 1 )=2
ψ ( 2 )=3
ψ ( 3 )=1
Show i) H is not G subgroup of G.
3
ii) ψ =Id
−1 2
iii) ψ =ψ

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 18 | P a g e

 can you try the above in pair?

5. Let
G=
{( )
a
c
b
d
: a , b , c , d ∈ R∧ad−bc≠0
}
H=
{( ) a
o
b
d
: a , b , d ∈ R∧ad≠0
}
K=
{( ) 1
o
b
b
:b ∈ R
}
Is K < H under addition of matrix?
Solution: yes, To see this
i) closed

( ) ( )
−1
1 b = 1 −b
ii) since 0 1 0 1

iii)
( )
1 0 ∈k
0 1 hence K is a group and K≤H

Note: K≤H ≤G
Theorem: A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G
iff

i) a , b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H

ii) a ∈ H ⇒ a−1 ∈ H
Proof:
( ⇒) it follows since H is a group.
(⇐ ) suppose (i) and (ii) are true.
1) Associativity holds since G is a group.
−1
2) by (ii) a ∈ H ⇒ a ∈H

by (i) a ,a−1 ∈ H ⇒aa−1=e∈ H

3) directly follows from (ii) verify?
Definition: Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G for

Theorem: Let G be a group and H ⊆ G

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 19 | P a g e

 The following statements are equivalent.

1) H≤G
−1
2) a ,b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H
−1
3) a,b∈ H ⇒ a b∈ H
Proof (i) ⇒ (ii)
a , b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H why? __________________________________

b ∈ H ⇒ b−1 ∈ H why?__________________________________
−1 −1
a , b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H
(ii) ⇒ (iii)
−1
Suppose a , b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈H
WTS a−1 b ∈ H

a , b ∈ H ⇒ ab−1 ∈ H Why?_____________________________________

b ∈ H ⇒ bb−1 =e ∈ H
a , e ∈ H ⇒ ea−1=a−1 ∈ H
e ,b ∈ H ⇒ eb−1=b−1 ∈ H
a−1 , b−1 ∈ H ⇒(a−1 )(b−1 )−1 a−1 b ∈ H .Why?___________________
(iii) ⇒ (i)
−1
Suppose a , b ∈ H ⇒ a b∈ H
WTS H<G
a) Associativity holds true

b) a,∈ H ⇒ a−1 a=e∈ H

a ,e∈ H ⇒ a−1 e=a−1 ∈ H
Hence, H is a group , H ¿ G
* Some more important theorems before going to cyclic say
 (ab)-1 = b-1 a-1
 right & left laws.

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 20 | P a g e

 Definition: - Let G be a group, H a subgroup of G for a , b ∈ G we say a is congruent to be mod H, written

a≡b ( mod H ) if ab−1 ∈ H

Example 1: Consider G = (Z,+) a group
H = (3z,+) is a subgroup of G a = 1, b = 4
1≡4 ( mod H ) because 1+4-1 = 1+-4 = -3∈ H
2. Let H = (4z,+)

a) Is 1≡4 ( ModH ) ?

b) Is 4≡3 ( ModH ) ?

c) Is 9≡−3 ( ModH ) ?
~
Theorem:- The relation a≡b (Mod H) is an equivalence relation on G (denoted by H )
Proof: 1) reflexivity
2) symmetry
3) Transitivity
−1
1) Let a ∈ G,a ,a =e∈ H
~
∀ a ∈G , a H a
~ −1
2) Suppose a H b ⇒ ab ∈H
−1
⇒ ( ab−1 ) ∈ H because H is a subgroup

⇒ ba−1 ∈ H
~
⇒b H a
~ ~ −1 −1
3) Suppose a H b∧b H c. Therefore ab ∈ H and bc ∈ H

( ab−1 )( bc−1)=ac−1 ∈ H because H is itself a group

~
⇒a H c
Hence
a≡b ( ModH ) is an equivalence relation G.
Definition: Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Then a right coset of H in G is a subset of the form

Hg = { x|x =hg , h ∈ H } for some g in G. We define a left coset of H in G to be a subset of the

form

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 gH= { x|x=gh ,h ∈ H }
Note that a coset is a right or left coset according as the element g is on the right or the left of H.
In the case where the group G is written additively, i.e. + is used to denote the binary operation, a right

coset is written H=g. Of course, H+g = { x|x =hg , h ∈ H }

Z 6= { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 } ( Z 6 ,⊕ 6 )
Example: is a group
H = {0,2,4}<Z6

Let a =
3 ∈ Z6

H 3 ={ 0 ⊕ 6 3 : h ∈ H }

= {0⊕6 3,⊕6 3,4 ⊕6 3 }

= {3,5,1}

Theorem for all a∈G Ha= { x ∈G : a≡x ( mod H ) }=[ a ]

Proof:-
Theorem: All right cosets of H in G cover G.

Theorem: Let G be a group and H<G and a , b ∈ G

i) Ha=H⇔ a∈ H
−1
ii) ii) Ha=Hb⇔ ab ∈H
Proof of i) ⇒ Suppose Ha=H⇒ h1a = h2 ∀ h ,∈ H ∃h2 ∈ H

⇒ a=h−1
1 h2

⇒a∈H
⇐ suppose a ∈ H

WTS:-Ha=H
i) Ha ⊆ H

Let x∈ Ha ⇒ x= ha h ∈ H since a ∈ H
⇒x ∈H

ii) H ⊆ Ha

Let x ∈ H ⇒ x=h1 h1 ∈ H
⇒ x =h1a-1a

⇒ x= (h1a-1)a

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 22 | P a g e

 −1
⇒ x =h2 a where h2 =h 1 a ∈ H

⇒ x =h2 a
⇒ x ∈ Ha
hence H  Ha
from (a) and (b) , H = Ha
−1
ii) ( ⇒ ) suppose Ha=Hb ⇒ h1a=h2b=1 h1ah-1=h2⇒ ab-1=h1 h2∈ H
( ⇐) Suppose ab-1∈ H
WTS: Ha=Hb

ab−1 ∈ H ⇒ ab−1 =h ∃ h∈ H
⇒ a=hb

Ha=H(hb)
= (Hh)b
= Hb

Cyclic groups

Theorem: Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. Then H= { a :n ∈ z } is a subgroup of G.

n

Proof 1. closed Show this? ___________________________________________________

∘
2. Identity a =e ∈ H

3. Inverse for a
n
∈ H , a−n ∈ Hb / cn ∈ z ,− n∈ z

a n⋅a−n =a n+−n=a∘ =e
and H is the smallest subgroup containing a.
Example

Let (
z 9 ,⊕ 9 )

Let H= { 3 :n ∈ z }
n

= { 0 , 3 , 6 } can you show this?

Definition: The group H= { a : n∈ z } is called the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a, and is denoted
n

by < a > . H = < a > = { a : n ∈ z }

n

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 Example Let H = z6

H = < 1 > = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 0} = Z6

H = < 5 > = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0} = Z6

H = < 4 > = {4, 2, 0} < H6

Definition: An element a of a group G generates G if < a > = G A group G is cyclic i

∋ a ∈G ∋G =< a>¿ ¿
Example: Z6 is cyclic because z6 = < 1 > = < 5 > (Z, +) is cyclic
Z = < 1 > = < -1 >
Determine the generator of Z4, Z5, Z

Theorem: Every cyclic group is abelian.

Proof: Let G be a cyclic group and let a ∈ G∋
G =< a >= { an : n ∈ z }
n n
Let
α 1 , α 2 ∈ G⇒ α 1 =a , α 2 =a , for some n1 , n2 ∈ Z
1 2

n1 n2 n1+n2 n2+n1 n2 n1
α 1 α2=a a =a =a =a .a =α 1 α1
⇒ G is abelian

Theorem: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic

Proof: Let G be cyclic i.e. G = < a > for some a ∈ G and H < G
i) If H = {e} = < e >

H ≠ { e } then ∋ n ∈ Z+ ∋ a ∈ H
n
ii) If
m
Let m be the smallest positive integer ∋a ∈H
Claim: H = < am >

Let b ∈ H ⇒ b ∈ G ⇒ b=a n for some n ∈ z

By division algorithm ∃q , r ∈ Z ∋
n = mq + r , 0r<m

mq r m −q
=( a ) a ⇒ a =( a )( a ) ⇒ a ∈H
n mq+r r n r
a =a
⇒ r=0 why? ___________________

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 24 | P a g e

 ⇒ n = mq + r = mq

mq
b=a =( a ) , where q ∈ Z
n

m
⇒ b ∈<a >¿ ¿
Example 1. Let
G=( z8 ,⊕8 ) =<1>¿ ¿
H = {0, 4, 8} = < 4 > = < 8 >

2. The subgroups of (Z, +) are (nz ,+), n ∈ z

(z, +) is cyclic since Z = < 1 >
( nZ ,+ ) is cyclic since ¿ Z =< n >=<−n>¿ ¿
∴ every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Can you find more examples?
* Definitions and Theorem on right & left congruent module H

i.e a≡b ( mod H ) iff ab ∈ H and

−1

a≡b ( mod H ) iff a−1 b ∈ H

Definition: [order of a group] The number of elements in a group is called the order of the group.

Remark: 1. The order of group G is denoted by 0 (G) = |G|

2. A group of finite order is called a finite group.
Example

1. Consider (
Z 12 , ⊕12 ) then 0 (Z ) = 12. Therefore ( Z 12 , ⊕12 ) is a finite group.
12

2. Consider the group G = {1, -1, i, -i} where i=√ −1 . Then 0 (G) = 4

Note If G is not finite then |G|=∞

3. Consider (
Z 12 , ⊕12 ) and subgroup H = < 6 > and K = < 4 > of Z
12

H = < 6 > = {0, 6}

K = < 4 > = {0, 4, 8}
HK = {0, 4, 8, 6, 10, 2} Can you show this?
Then 0(H) = 2, 0(K) = 3, 0(HK) = 6

What H∩K ? and 0 ( H∩K )?

Theorem: Suppose H and K are finite subgroups of a group G and suppose

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 25 | P a g e

 H∩G={ e } then 0(HK) = 0(H) 0(K)

Proof: WTS all hk, h ∈ H , k ∈ K are different

i.e h1k1 = h2k2 ⇒ h1 = h2 and k1 = k2

Suppose h1k1 = h2 k2
−1
⇒ h2 h1 k 1=k 2
⇒ h−1 −1
2 h1=k 2 k 1 ∈ H ∩k why ?________________
−1 −1
⇒ h2 h1=e∧k 2 k 1 =e⇒ h1=h2∧k 1 =k 2
* What if H∩k≠ { e } ? _______________________________
Give examples?_____________________________________
Theorem: Suppose h1, h2 ∈ H and k1, k2 ∈ K
h1k1 = h2 k2 if and only if ∃ u ∈ H ∩k ∋

h1 = h2u and k1 = u-1k2

Proof: ( ⇒ ) suppose h1k1 = h2k2

−1 −1
⇒ h2 h1=k 2 k 1 =u ∈ H∩k
−1
⇒ h2 h1=u ⇒h 1=h2 u
k 2 k −1 −1
1 =u ⇒k 2=uk 1 ⇒ k 1=u k 2
−1
( ⇒) Suppose ∃ u ∈ H ∩ k ∋h1= h2 u∧k 1= u k2

Example Let G = (
z 9 ,⊕ 9 ) then

H = {0, 3, 6}
H1 = {1, 4, 7}
H2 = {2, 5, 8}
H3 = {3, 6, 0}
H4 = {4, 2, 1}
H5 = {5, 8, 1}
H6 = {0, 3, 6}
H7 = {7, 1, 4}
H8 = {8, 2, 5}

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 26 | P a g e

 G = H∪H 1∪ H 2
|G| = 9, |H| = 3 and 3|9
Example
G=( Z 8 ,⊕ 8 )

H = {0,2,4,6}
1 H=1 ⊕8 H ={ 1 ,3 , 5 ,7 }
2 H=2 ⊕8 H ={ 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 }
3 H=3 ⊕ 8 H= {3 , 5 , 2, 1 }

4 H=4 ⊕8 H ={ 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 }
Definition

Theorem the relation

a≡ℓ b ( ModH ) is an equivalence relation on G

Theorem:- For all a ∈ G aH =¿ x ∈ G: a≡ℓ x ( mod H ) ¿=[ a ] ¿

Remark:- Any two left cosets of H in G are either identical or disjoint
Theorem: All left cosets of H in G cover G

Theorem: Let G be a group and H<G and a , b ∈ G

i) aH =H ⇔ a ∈ H
−1
ii) aH =bH ⇔ a ∈H
Remark:- If G is abelian and H<G, then for any a ∈ G ,h ∈ H
Ah=ha so Ha=aH
 There is a 1-1 correspondence between any two right cosets of H in G
[Two left cosets]
What are the necessary step to show?
Solution

Define φ : Ha → Hb by φ ( ha )=hb ∀ h ∈ H

Suppose ha = h’a , ha,h’a ∈ Ha

'
⇒ h=h

⇒ hb=h' b ⇒ φ ( ha )=φ ( h' a )

ii) One – to - one

Suppose φ ( x )=φ ( x ) WTS

'
x = x’

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 27 | P a g e

 φ (ha)=φ ( h' a )
⇒ hb=h' b
'
⇒ h=h
⇒ ha=h ' a
iii) Onto

Let y ∈ Hb⇒ y=hb for some h ∈ H

Take x = ha
φ ( x )=φ ( ha )=hb
hence onto
Hence Ha and Hb are in 1-1 correspondence for H < G
Note Two finite sets are in 1-1 correspondence iff they have the same number of elements.
Remark
H = He is a right Coset.

G= ¿ Ha
Any right Coset has the same number of elements as H = He, and a∈G

The number of distinct right cosets of H in G are finite (say k). The number of elements in G is equal
to k times the number of elements in H, i.e |G| = k|H|.
Theorem: If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then |H|
is a divisor of |G|

i.e |H| φ |G| i.e |G| = k |H|

Definition: If H < G, the index of H in G, denoted by [G:H], is the number of distinct right cosets of H in G
(left coset).
If G is finite |G| = [G:H] |H|
Examples i) [G:H] = 1 ⇒ |G| = |H|
⇒ G=H

ii) [G:H] = |G| ⇒ |G| = [G:H] |H|

=|G||H|
⇒|H|=1 ⇒ H ={ e }
Can you find more examples? Try?

Definition If G is a group and a ∈ G, the order (or period) of a is the least positive integer m such that a m
= e If no such positive integer exists, we say a is of infinite order.

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 28 | P a g e

Notation: - 0(a) = order of a
k
Remark: - If a0(a) = e, then a ≠e for 0 < k < 0(a)

1. Consider (z, +) then

⏟m
1 =1+1. ..+1 ≠1
mtimes hence 0(1) is infinite.

2. ( Z 10 , ⊕10 ) then 4 ∈ Z 10 , and 0 ( 4 ) =5 , why?

Factor groups or quotients group

Definition:- If N is a normal subgroup of G, the collection of all right cosets of N in G is denoted by G/N.
G/ N= { Na :a ∈G }

Remark:- The elements of G/N are subsets of G

G
×G
N G
→
N N

(Na,Nb)→ Nab
Let G=( Z 6 ,⊕ 6 )
Example
N = {0,2,4} N is a normal subgroup of G
G
= {N ⊕ 0 , N ⊕ 1 , N ⊕ 2 , N ⊕ 3 , N ⊕ 4 , N ⊕ 5}
N

= {N,{1,3,5},N,{1,3,5}, N, {1,3,5}}
= {N,{1,3,5}}

= {N,N
⊕6 1 }

0(G) = 6, 0(N) = 3

(0 G N )=2

Permutation (symmetric) groups.

Definition: - Let A be a set. A permutation of a set A is a function from A into A which is both 1-1 and
onto. (A permutation is a rearrangement of the elements of the set)
Example Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 29 | P a g e

 Define φ : A → A by
(
φ 1= 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 1 2 4 6 ) φ 1 is a permutation on A
Can you find another? How many can you find?

Theorem: Let A≠φ , SA be the collection of all permutations of A, then S A is a group under
composition of functions.
Proof: i) Composition of functions is associative

ii)
φ , ℓ ∈ S A , φ ∘ℓ : A → A both 1-1 & onto

⇒ φ∘ ℓ ∈ S A
−1
iii) Since φ : A → A is 1−1 and onto, φ : A → A , is 1-1 and onto

iv)
I d : A → AI d ( x )=x ∀ x ∈ A is identity mapping S A ={ φ : A → A is 1-1 & onto}

hence (
S A ,∘) is a group.
Definition: If A is a finite set {1, 2, 3, . . .,n}, then the group of all permutations of A is symmetric group of
n letters and is denoted by Sn.

Remark: Sn has n! elements [A rearrangement of n objects]

Example 1. S4 has 4! Elements

2. S3 has 3! Elements. Is S3 is commutative?

3. Let
D4 ={ ℓ0 , ℓ1 , ℓ2 , .. . , ℓ7 } where

( ) ( ) (
ℓ 0= 1 2 3 4 , ℓ 1= 1 2 3 4 , ℓ 2= 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 2 3 4 1 3 4 1 2 )
ℓ =( 1 2 3 4 ) , ℓ =( 1 2 3 4 ) , ℓ =( 1
3 4 5
2 3 4
)
4 1 2 3 2 1 4 3 4 3 2 1

ℓ =( 1 2 3 4 ) , ℓ =( 1 2 3 4 )
6 7
3 2 1 4 1 4 3 2

Theorem: Let A be a set and let a be a fixed element of A. Let T a be the set of all permutation s of A
having the property ℓ ( a ) = a, Ta is a subgroup of SA

ℓ ,ℓ ∈Ta
Proof: i) closed, since if i j

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 30 | P a g e

 ℓ i ( a )=a and ℓ j ( a )=a

( ℓi ∘ℓ j ) ( a )=ℓi ( ℓ j ( a ) ) =ℓ i ( a )=a
⇒ ℓi ∘ℓ j ∈ Ta
ii) Associatively is clear why?_____________________________________
iii) Identity also clear why?_______________________________________

iv) Inverse, Let

ℓ i ∈ Ta , ℓ i ( a )=a
−1
⇒ ℓi ( a )=a
Example
T 2={ ℓ ∈ S4 : ℓ ( 2 )=2 } i.e

ℓ 0= (11 2 3 4
2 3 4
, ℓ 1=) (
1 2 3 4
3 2 1 4
, ℓ 2=
1 2 3 4
3 2 4 1 ) ( )
(
ℓ 3= 1 2 3
4 2 1 3) (4
4 ,ℓ = 1
4
2 3
2 3 1) (1
4 , ℓ 5= 1 2 3 4
2 4 3 )
Can you find T1 and T4?

Theorem: Let A be a set and φ ∈ S A . Define  on A as a ∼b ⇔ φn ( a )=b . for some n ∈ Z then “

“ is an equivalence relation.

Proof: i) reflexive Id (a) = a ⇒

I d ( a )=φ[ 0 ] ( a )=a ⇒ a ∼a
ii) Symmetric

Suppose a  b i.e φ [ n ] ( a )=b for some n ∈ Z

⇒ φ−n ( b )=a for −n ∈ Z

⇒ b a

iii) Transitive
Suppose a  b ¿ b c

i.e φ [ n ] ( a ) =b and φ[ m ] ( b )=c for some m , n∈ z

φ [ m+ n] ( ( a ) =φm ∘φn ( a )=φ m [ φ n ( a ) ]=φm ( b )=c

⇒ a∼c

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 31 | P a g e

 Hence ‘’ is an equivalence relation on A.

Remark: The equivalence relation ‘  ‘ divides A into disjoint equivalence classes, each equivalence

class determined by “ “ is called an orbit of φ .

Example Let A = {1, 2, 3}

S3= { ℓ|ℓ : A → A }

(11
ℓ 0=
2
2
3
3) (
ℓ 1=
1
3
2
2
3
1 ) (
ℓ 2=
1
2
2
1
3
3 )
ℓ =( ) ℓ =( ) ℓ =(
2)
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
3 4 5
2 3 1 3 1 2 1 3

Consider ℓ 0 , Is 1 ∼ 3? = _________________________

ℓ 0 (1 )=1
ℓ 20 (1 )=1
1 is not related to 3

In ℓ 4 , 2∼ 3 , ℓ 4 ( 2 )=1
2
ℓ 4 ( 2 )=ℓ4 ( 1 )=3
∴ 2∼ 3

The orbit of ℓ 5 are { 1 } , { 2 , 3 }

Theorem: Let A be a finite set,

φ∈SA and a ∈ A , there exists a positive integer k such that the orbit of

a
φ to which belong is { a,,φ ( a) ,φ ( a) ,...,φ
2 (k−1 )
(a )}
Proof: Since A is finite SA is also finite 0 ( φ ) is also finite because
0 ( φ )|0 ( S A )
m
Suppose 0 ( φ )=m⇒ φ ( α )=α , ∀ α ∈ A
m
Similarly φ ( a )=a
k
Let k be the smallest positive integer such that φ ( a )=a
2 m1 (k−1)
Claim:
a,φ ( a ) ,φ ( a ) ,...,φ ( a ) ,...,φ ( a) are all distinct.

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 32 | P a g e

 m2 m1
Suppose not,
φ ( a )=φ ( a ) 0≤m1 <m2≤k−1
( m2−m1)
⇒φ ( a )=am2−m1<k→←
2 (k−1)
Hence a,φ ( a ) ,φ ( a ) ,...,φ ( a ) are all distinct.
Let b be an element of the orbit to which a belongs.[or b ∈ the equivalence class determined by a]

∋ n∈ z such that b=φ n ( a ) ,n ∈ z

by division algorithm, n = qk + r, 0  r < k

b=φ n ( a )=φ qk ( a ) φr ( a ) =φr ( φq ( k) ( a ) )

k
= φ [ ( φ ( a ) ] ] =φ ( a )
r q r

r qk
( ) ( ( ) ( ) )
b=φ [ φ a ]= φ φ a =φ ( a ) ,0≤r<k
r r kq

Hence b ∈ {a , φ ( a ) , φ 2 ( a ) ,. .. , φ k−1 ( a ) }

Example 1
ℓ 5= 1
3 ( 2
1 2 )
3 , ℓ 3 (1 )=1
5

{ 1,3,2 } orbit of ℓ 5

(
ℓ= 1 2 3 4 5
3 4 1 2 5 )
{1, 3}, {2, 4}, {5} are orbit of ℓ
2. Consider S3 on a set A = {1, 2, 3}

(
ℓ 0= 1
1
2
2 ) (
3 ℓ = 1
3 1 1
2
3 ) (
3 ℓ = 1
2 2 3
2
2
3
1 )
ℓ =( 1
3) (3 1) (3 2)
2 3 ℓ =1 2 3 ℓ =1 2 3
3 4 5
2 1 2 1
ℓ ∈ S3
now take 5
Is 2  3?

ℓ 5 (2 )=1 , ℓ25 ( 2 )=ℓ5 ( ℓ 5 ( 2 ) ) =ℓ 5 ( 1 )=3

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 33 | P a g e

 Hence 2  3
Again Is 1  3

ℓ 5 (1 )=3 ,
The dihedral groups
Let S be a regular n-gon, n>2, e.g one of the figures below. We will show that in any isometry of S,
verices are taken to vertices. This will make it easy to determine the order of the symmetry group of a
regular n-gon, n>2.
1 1 1
1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
We will take the following geometrical lemma for granted. 1
Lemma: Every regular n-gon can be circumscribed by one and
only one circle.
We call the center of the circumscribing circle of an n-gon its center.
Lemma: The center of a regular n-gons S is taken onto itself
by any element of Is.
Proof: Since every point of S is within adistance r, say, from the center O, and σ is an isometry, then evry

element of
Sσ is within a distance r from Oσ . Also, there are points of Sσ which are exactly a distance r

from Oσ , as there are points of S which are exactly a distance r from O. But
Sσ = S. Hence the circle with

radius r and center Oσ is a circumscribing circle of S. But by the previous lemma there is only one
circumscribing circle of S.
Thus Oσ =O.

Lemma: If S is a regular n-gon and σ ∈ Is , then vertices of S are

taken onto vertices of S by σ .

Proof: If A is a vertex of S and O is the center of S, O σ =O by Lemma d ( Oσ , Aσ )=d ( O , Aσ )=d ( O , A ) .

Hence Aσ is a distance r from O, where r is the radius of the circumscribing circle C. The only points of S

on the circumference of C are vertices. But Aσ is an element of S on the circumference of C. Thus Aσ is

a vertex.
The symmetry group of the regular n-gon is called the dihedral group of degree n. we can now calculate
the orders of the dihedral groups.
Let the vertices of a regular n-gon S with center O be A1,…An (in a clockwise direction).

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 2 π ( j−1 )
Let
σ j , 1≤ j≤n , rotate S about O in a clockwise direction through an angle n radians

(¿ 360n ( j−1) deg rees) so that

A1 σ 1= A j . As an example, the effect of
σ 3 on the regular pentagon is

shown below.
A1
3
A5
O A2
3 O 3

A4
A3
3 3
Let τ be the reflection about the line through A1 and O, so that
A1 τ= A1 , A 2 τ= A n

The effect of τ on the regular pentagon is shown.

A1


A5
O A2
 O

A4
A3
A3τ

The following diagram illustrates the effect on a regular pentagon of the reflection τ followed by the

rotation
σ 3.

A1
 3
A5
O A2  O O 3
3

A4
A3   3 3

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 35 | P a g e

 σ ,...,σ n ,τσ 1 ,...,τσ n are all distinct. For certainly σ j ≠σ k , j≠k , as
The elements 1
A1 σ j ≠A1 σ k , j≠k . If

τσ j =σ k , then A1 τσ j = A1 σ j = A1 σ j= A1 σ k . Thus
τσ j =σ k implies j = k. But
τσ j =σ j implies τ =σ 1 ,

the identity, contrary to assumption. Finally,

τσ j =τσ k implies
σ j =σ k .
So there are at least 2n possible elements of the dihedral group of degree n. But we can easily show

that there are no more than 2n. For if σ ∈ Is , S the regular n-gon, then there are n possibilities for A1 σ .

As vertices are taken to vertices, A1 σ is one of A1,…,An. A2 σ has only two possibilities once A1 σ is
d ( A1 σ , A 2 σ ) =d ( A1 , A2 )
determined as , and A2 σ must also be a vertex. Once A1 σ and A2 σ are

determined,
Ai σ ,i=3, 4 ,.. . ,n are also determined. Hence there are at most two elements σ ∈ Is which

map A1 σ to Aj. Thus there are at most 2n elements of Is, and so |Is|=2n .
Let Dn denote the dihedral group of degree n.
Let find D3 and its multiplication table.
Solution:

The elements of D3 are the

σ j , τσ j above. Note that
σ j σ 2 = σ j+1 if 1≤ j≤2 , and ς 3 σ 2 = σ 1 . Also

note that
τ −1=τ and σ i τ=τ 2 σ i τ =ττσ i τ . Now τσ 1 τ=σ 1 , since σ 1 is the identity; τσ 2 τ=σ 3 ,

as
A1 τσ 2 τ= A 1 σ 2 τ= A2 τ= A3 ; and A2 τσ 2 τ= A 3 σ 2 τ= A1 τ= A 1 . So
σ 3 τ=τσ 2 and τσ 3 =σ 2 τ .

Accordingly the multiplication table is as follows:

σ1 σ2 σ3 τ τσ 2 τσ 3
σ1 σ1 σ2 σ3 τ τσ 2 τσ 3
2 σ2 σ3 σ1 τσ 3 τ τσ 2

σ3 σ3 σ1 σ2 τσ 2 τσ 3 τ

τ τ τσ 2 τσ 3 σ 1 σ2 σ3
τσ 2 τσ 2 τσ 3 τ σ3 σ1 σ2

τσ 3 τσ 3 τ τσ 2 σ2 σ3 σ1

(ii) {
σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3}
2. Show that the following are subgroups of D3: (i) { σ 1 } ,

iii) { τσ 2 , σ 1} . (Notation is the same as in the preceding problem.)

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 36 | P a g e

 Solution:
It is only necessary to check in each case tht the set is not empty and if g,h belong to the set, gh
belong to the set. It is easy to calculate gh-1 from the multiplication table of Problem .
3. Find D4, the symmetry group of the square, and its multiplication table.
Solution

We will, however, use the notation of section , i.e

σ j , j = 1,2,3,4. for the rotations and τ for the

reflection. Accordingly the elements of D 4 are

σj and
τσ j , j=1,2,3,4 Now
σ j σ 2 = σ j+1 for 1≤ j≤3 ,

σ 3 σ 2 =σ 1 , and σ i σ j=σ j σ i for all I and j. Also

τ −1=τ , σ 1 τ=ττσ i τ , and τσ 1 τ=σ 1 .

We show
τσ 2 τ=σ 4 . A1 τσ 2 = A1 σ 2 =A 2 τ =A 4 , A 2 τσ 2 τ= A 4 σ 2 τ= A 1 τ= A 1, and

A3 τσ 2 τ= A 3 σ 2 τ= A 4 τ= A2 . Furthermore A1 σ 4 = A 4 , A2 σ 4 = A 1 , and A3 σ 4 = A 2 .

Since
τσ 2 τ and σ 4 have the same effect on the three points A1 , A2 and A τσ 2 τ=σ 4
3 by

2
σ
The following calculations facilitate the construction of a multiplication table for D 4. 2
=σ 3 implies

τσ 3 τ=τσ 22 τ ( τσ 2 τ )( τσ 2 τ ) =σ 24 =σ 3 and σ 4 =σ 3 σ 2 implies

τσ 4 τ=τσ 3 σ 2 τ=( τσ 3 τ )( τσ 2 τ ) =σ 3 σ 4 =σ 2 .
Hence
σ 2 τ=ττσ 2 τ=τσ 4 , σ 3 τ , and
σ 4 τ=ττσ 4 τ =τσ 2 . It
is now easy to construct the table.

σ1 σ2 σ3 σ4 τ τσ 2 τσ 3 τσ 4
σ1 σ1 σ2 σ3 σ4 τ τσ 2 τσ 3 τσ 4

2 σ2 σ3 σ4 σ1 τσ 4 τ τσ 2 τσ 3
σ3 σ3 σ4 σ1 σ2 τσ 3 τσ 4 τ τσ 2
σ4 σ4 σ1 σ2 σ3 τσ 2 τσ 3 τσ 4 τ

τ τ τσ 2 τσ 3 τσ 4 σ 1 σ2 σ3 σ4
τσ 2 τσ 2 τσ 3 τσ 4 τ σ4 σ1 σ2 σ3
τσ 3 τσ 3 τσ 4 τ τσ 2 σ 3 σ4 σ1 σ2
τσ 4 τσ 4 τ τσ 2 τσ 3 σ 2 σ3 σ4 σ1

Definition

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 37 | P a g e

 (
a1 a2 a3 . . . a n
a a3 a 4 . . . a 1 Is a cycle of length n (cyclic?)
The permutation 2
)
( )
a1 a2 . . . an
a2 a3 . . . a1
Notation
Example The permutation

( 1 3 5 4 2 1 2 3 5 4
=
3 5 4 2 1 3 1 5 4 2 )( )
= ( 1, 3, 5 , 4, 2 )

= ( 3, 5, 4, 2, 1 ) = ( 5, 4, 2, 1, 3 )

= ( 4 , 2 , 1, 3, 5 )
length of the cycle is 5.

Remark:(
a1 a 2 . . , an )
is a permutation φ which sends ai into a i + 1 for i = 1, 2, . . .,n-1 and an in to a1,
and leaves all other elements of S.

Example 3 5(
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 1 4 6 7 8
=( 1 3 2 5 4 ) )
Example Consider ( 1 3 2 5 4 )

I n S 7 , φ= 1
3 ( 2
5
3
2
4
1
5
4
6
6
7
7 )
what are the orbits of φ ?
Answer {1, 3, 2, 5, 4}, {6}, {7} explain!

(
I n S 9 , φ= 1 2
3 5
3 4
2 1
5
4
6 7
6 7
8 9
8 9 )
what are the orbits of φ ?
Answer {1, 3, 2, 5, 4}, {6}, {7}, {8} & {9}, why?
Example Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then

(⏟
1 , 3 , 4 ) ∘ (⏟
length3
4 ,3 ,1 , 5 ) =
length4
(
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
∘
3 2 4 1 5 6 5 2 1 3 4 5 )( )
=
(15 2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4 1 6 )
MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 38 | P a g e
 = ( 1,5 ) , cycle of length 2. and

(
( 1 , 3 ,6 , 4 ) ∘ ( 2, 1 , 6 )= 1 2 3 4 5 6 ∘ 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 2 6 1 5 4 6 1 3 4 5 2 )( )
=
( 14 23 36 41 55 62 ) is not cycle

( 1 4 )( 2 3 6 )=( 1 2 3 4 5 6 )∘ (1 2 3 4 5 6
)
4 2 3 1 5 6 1 3 6 4 5 2

=
( 14 23 36 41 55 62 ) is not cycle
Activity 43 [individual work]
Study (2, 3, 6) (1, 4) Is it cyclic? Why?
Definition A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition
In S6, (1, 4) is cycle length 2 then it is transposition.

Remark. A cycle of length 1 represents the identity permutation.

Example in S6 (1) = (4) = (5) = (3) = (6) is an identity mapping.

Definition Disjoint permutations

Two permutation φ , ψ ∈ S A are said to be disjoint if

i) φ ( a )≠a ⇒ ψ ( a )=a

ii) ψ ( a )≠a ⇒φ ( a )=a

Example In S6 , φ=( 4 6 2 ) , ψ=( 1 3)

ψ and φ are disjoint permutations

Is φ ∘ψ=ψ ∘φ ? Show this!

Definition Let A be a non-empty finite set and let φ be a permutation on A. For any a ∈ A . The cyclic

permutation ( a , φ ( a ) , .. . , φ ( a )) is called a cycle of φ .

k −1

Example Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and

φ= ( 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 5 4 1 2 6 )
then (1, 3, 4) is a cycle of φ .

(5, 2) is a cycle of φ

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 39 | P a g e

 (6) is a cycle of φ
the cycles are disjoint.
Theorem: Any two cycles of a permutation of a finite set are disjoint.

Proof: Let ( a , φ ( a , ) .. . , φ ( a ) ) and ( b , φ ( b ) ,. . . ,φ i−1 ( b )) be any two distinct cycles of φ . by the

( k−1 )

definition of a

cycle ( a , φ ( a , ) .. . , φ ( a ) ) and ( b , φ ( b ) ,. . . ,φ i−1 ( b )) are two distinct orbits of φ .

( k−1 )

Since two distinct orbits don’t have an element in common. So

( a , φ ( a , ) .. . , φ( k−1 ) ( a ) ) and (b , φ ( b ) ,. . . ,φ i−1 ( b )) have no element in common i.e The two cycles are
disjoint.
Theorem
The number of transpositions whose products is a given permutation of a finite set is either always
even or always odd.

Proof. WLOG Let A = {1, 2, 3, . . ., n} and n n≥2

i) The identify permutation Id
Id = (1, 2) (1, 2) expressed as a product of even transpositions.
Id=ψ 1 . ψ 2 . .. ψ k , ψi
WTS: where is a transposition k must be even.
ψi
Let me A and be the first transposition counting from left to right in which m occurs.

 The symmetric and alternating groups

a. The symmetric group on x

Let x be any non-empty set. A very important group arises from the set S x of all one-to-one mappings of
x on to x, called the symmetric group on x. we describe this group in the usual five steps.
Activity46 Study the following steps in pairs.

I. Sx is the set of all matching of the non-empty set x with itself. Clearly,
Sx ⊆ M x .

II. If
δ , τ ∈ S x . Here we must verify that δτ is a matching of x with itself. Suppose x ∈ X ; then as

τ is onto, we can find x func ∈ X} { ¿ such that x τ=x . } {¿ But δ is also onto, so we can find x ' ∈ X

such that x' δ=x} {¿ consequently

x ' ( δτ ) =( x ' δ ) τ=x r=x} { ¿

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 40 | P a g e

 and hence δτ is onto.

If x ( δτ ) = y ( δτ ) , then ( xδ ) τ=( yδ ) τ by the definition of the

composition of mappings; This means, since τ is one-to-

one that x = y. Therefore δτ is also onto-to-one. Thus

composition of mappings is a binary operation is Sx.
III. Clearly the identity mapping i : x → x is in Sx and is an identity element of Sx.
IV. The algebraic structure (Sx,.) is a semi group, since composition of mappings is associative.

V. Let
δ ∈ S x , since δ is one-to-one and onto, and δ has an inverse, τ , in M . Now, δτ =i=τδ
x

means δ is an inverse of τ . The only elements in Mx which have inverses are more which are

one-to-one on to mappings. Therefore

τ ∈ S x and τ is the required inverse of δ . The proof

that Sx is a group is complete.

We will call an element of Sx a permutation of x , or for short, a permutation.
In the particular case where X = {1,2,…,n}, we write S x = Sn, Sn is called the symmetric group of
degree n.
Note that: |Sn| is calculated as follows.

If
δ ∈ S n , then 1δ can be one of n elements 2δ can be one of n-1 elements, as 1δ has been chosen

and δ must be one-to-one; so 2 δ≠1 δ . 3 δ can be one of n-2 elements, as 1 δ and 2δ have been chosen

and δ must be one-to-one; so 3δ is not equal to 2δ or 1δ . Continuing in this way, we conclude that there
are
n.(n-1). (n-2) … 2.1 = n! elements of Sn, i.e |Sn| = n!
Solved Problems

1. Prove that the groups given by the following multiplication table are isomorphic

0 1

G: H: 0 0 1
-1 1
1 1 0
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1

Solution

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 41 | P a g e

 1 =0 ,−1θ=1 : then θ is a one-to-one onto mapping. If it is also a
Let θ : G → H be defined by θ

homomorphism it will be an isomorphism. We must check that (g 1g2)θ =g1θ g2θ for all possible
chooses of g1 and g2 in G, i.e we must check

i) (1.1)θ =1θ 1θ

ii) (-1.1)θ =(-1θ )(1θ )

iii) (-1.-1)θ = (-1θ )(-1θ )

iv) (1.-1)θ = (1θ ).(-1θ )

(i) to (iv) hold. (Thus for (i):1.1 = 1 by the multiplication table. 1θ =0, 1θ .1θ = 0.0 = 0
Hence (i) holds) Therefore G¿ H
2. Prove that S2, the symmetric group of degree 2, is isomorphic to G, where G is a group defined by
for any fixed number positive integer m and S = {0,1,2,…,m-1}, the binary operation in S by
aob = a+b if a+b<m
aob = r if a+b = m+r, 0<r<m

with m = 2, prove
S3 ≃D3 the dihedral group of degree 3,

i,e the symmetry group of the equilateral triangle.

3. Prove that if G is a finite group and H is an infinite group, then G and H are not isomorphic
Solution
If G¿ H , there is a one-to-one mapping from G onto H. But this is not possible since G is finite
and H is infinite.

4. Prove that
Sn ≃Sm if and only if n=m.

Solution

Sn has order n! and Sm has order m! Now if

Sn ≃Sm , then there is a one-to-one mapping of S onto
n

Sm. So Sn and Sm have the same order, i.e n!=m!, and this implies n = m, on the other hand every group
G is isomorphic to itself. Infact the identify mapping of G onto G is an isomorphism
Hence n = m implies Sn = Sm.

5. Prove that if G≃H , then H ≃G

Solution
−1
Let θ be an isomorphism from G onto H. Then θ is an

isomorphism from H to G, and so H ≃G

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 42 | P a g e

 6. Prove that if G≃H and H ≃K , then G≃K
Solution

Suppose θ is an isomorphism form G to H and φ an isomorphism

from H to K, then θ φ is an isomorphism from G to K

i.e G≃K
7. Prove that there are infinitely many groups, no two of which are isomorphic
Solution
Consider the symmetric groups S1,S2,…, then by problem 4,
above, no pair of these groups is isomorphic.

8. Prove that of G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, H ≠G , then G and H are not
isomorphic.
Solution
We observed in the problem 4, above that if two infinite
groups are isomorphic, they have the same order. Since the
order of H is less than that of G, it follows that G and H are
not isomorphic.
9. Find all normal subgroups of S3.

Solution
Let the element of S3 be

i=
(11 2
2 ) ( 21 32 ) τ =(13 22 31 )
3 d = 1
3 2 3 2

d 1= ( 1
2
2
3 1)
3
τ1=( 1 3 2 ) (2 1 3 )
1 2 3
τ =
1 2 3
3

clearly {i} and S3 are both normal subgroups of S3. There are no normal subgroups of S3 containing
elements of order 2 except S3. The elements of order 2 in S 3 are, as we readily check by using the

multiplication table for

S3 τ 1 , τ 2 and τ 3 . Suppose for example that a normal subgroup N of S contains
3

−1
τ 1 ; then ¿1 τ 1 ∝1 ¿ ∝ 2 τ 1 ∝ 1 ¿ τ 2 ∈ N
2
Hence τ 1 τ 2 =¿2 ∈ N and ∝2 ¿ ∝ 1 ∈ N , and so it follows in this way that N = S3.

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 43 | P a g e

 We have shown that if N is a normal subgroup of S 3, then if N contains elements of order 2, N = S 3.

Therefore if N≠ { i } , then N must contain elements of order 3 (there are only elements of order 1,2, or
2
3 in S3). Now ¿2 =¿1 are the only elements of S3 of order 3. In fact ¿ ¿ is a normal subgroup of
−1
S3. For example, τ 1 ∝1 τ 1 =τ 1 ∝1 τ 1 =¿2 ∈ ¿ ¿ Accordingly S3 has precisely three distinct
normal subgroups.
10. Prove that the negative of a+b is –a-b
Solution:
(a+b)+(-a-b)=(a+b) + [(-a)+ (-b)]
=[(a+b)+(-a)] + (-b)
=[a+(b+(-a))] + (-b)
=[a+((-a)+b)] + (-b)
=[(a+(-a)) +b] + (-b)
=(0+b) + (-b)
= b+(-b)
=0
11. Prove that if G is abelian and H is a subgroup of G, then G/H is abelian.
Solution
(f+w)+(g+H) = (f+g) + H=(g+f)+H=(g+H)+(f+H
12. Let n be an integer and G an abelian group G. Prove that H is a subgroup of G if and only if
f , g ∈ H implies f −g ∈ H .
Solution:
If n = 0, n(g+h) = 0 by definition. Furthermore ng+nh=0+0 = 0. Thus n(g+h)=ng+nh when n = 0
If n>0, let n=m+1, the m>0. inductively we may assume that m(g+h)=mg+mh.
Keeping this in mind,
n(g+h)=(m+1)(g+h)=m(g+h)+(g+h)=mg+mh+g+h
=mg+S+mh+h=(m+1)g+(m+1)h=ng+nh
finally if n<0, n=-m for m>0, and so
n(g+h)=m((-g+h))=m((-g)+(-h))=m(-g)+m(-h)=ng+nh.

13. Let n be any integer and G is abelian group. Prove that the mapping θ which sends g to ng for
each g in G is a homomorphism.
Solution

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 44 | P a g e

 Now, in additive notation, to say that θ is a homorphism

means that (g+h) θ =gθ +hθ for all g , h ∈G , but by problem

above (g+h) θ =n(g+h)=ng+nh=gθ +hθ .

14. Let H and K be subgroups of G. Prove that H+K is a subgroup of G. If H∩K ={0} and G= H+K.

Prove that G= H ⊕ K . ( H + K = { h+ k|h ∈ H and k ∈ K } )

Solution:
H + K ≠φ since both H ≠φ and K ≠φ . So we have to prove that if u , v ∈ H +K , then u-v∈

H+K. Now u=h+k, v=h’+k’ ( h , h ' ∈ H , k , k ' ∈ K ) . Thus u-v =(h-h’)+(k-k’) ∈ H+k

Since H and K are subgroups of G. If H∩K ={0} and if we consider two expressions h1+k1 = h2+k2
where h1,h2∈ H and k1,k2∈ K, then x=h1-h2=k2-k1 belongs to both H and K. Therefore x = 0 and
h1=h2, k1 = k2.
Hence the expression of an element in the form h+k is unique

Since G = H+K, it follows that G= H⊕ K.

Study the following definition in pairs
1. If G is a group, we define the center of G, denoted by Z(G), to be
{z/z∈ G and for all g∈ G, gz = zg}
z(G) turns out to be a normal subgroup of G.
2. If G is a group and x,y∈ G, then x-1y-1xy is called the commentator of x and y or, more briefly,
a commentator. We often write [x,y] for the commentator x-1y-1xy.
The subgroup of G generated by all commentators is called the commentator subgroup (also
called the derived group) of G and is denoted by G’. Again G’ turns out to be normal in G.
Proceeding along somewhat different lines, let A be a subset of a group G.

1. The centralized C(A) of A (in G) is defined by C(A) = C ( A )={ C/C ∈ G and for all
a ∈ A ,ca=ac¿¿
C(A) is a subgroup of G. If A is an abelian subgroup A is normal in C(A).
2. The normalizer N(A) of A in G is defined by
N ( A )= {n / n∈ G and An=nA }
N(A) is a subgroup of G and. If A is a subgroup of G.
A is normal in N(A). Furthermore, if A is a subgroup of G,
A is normal in G if and only if N(A) =G. These facts will

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 45 | P a g e

 be proved in the following problem:
Solved Problems
1. Prove that the inverse of a commentator is a commentator
Solution
[x,y] = x-1y-1xy=z, say z-1=y-1x-1yx= [y,x]
2. Prove that G’ is normal in G.
Solution:
−1
We must show that if g ∈G and h ∈G ' , then g hg∈ G' .
If h is a commentator, say h = x-1y-1xy, then

1 y 1 x 1 y 1= [ x 1 , y 1 ]
x−1 −1
g-1hg=g-1x-1gg-1y-1gg-1yg =
−1 −1 −1
where x1 = g-1xg (consequently x 1 =g x g ) and y = g-1yg.
1

Now any element h of G’ is a product of commentators and their inverses; and as an inverse of a
commentator is a commentator, every element h of G’ is a product c1…ck of commentators .
Therefore
g-1hg = g-1(c1…ck) g = g-1c1gg-1c2g…g-1ckg = d1d2…dk
−1
where di = g-1cig. But we have just shown that di is a commentator. Hence if h∈G ',g hg∈G ' .
3. Show that G is abelian if and only if G’={1}
Solution

Suppose G is ableian and that x , y ∈G , As x and y comate (i.e xy=yx),

[x,y]=x-1y-1xy = x-1x=1. Then G’ is the subgroup of G generated
by 1, and G’=1. Now G’ ={1},then in particular any commentator[x,y]=x -1y-1
xy = 1. hence x(x-1y-1xy) = x and y (y-1xy) = yx,
i.e xy = xy. Thus G is ablian.
1
S = A3
4. Show that every element in A3 is a commentator of elements in S3. Hence show that 3
Solution: can you show this try!
5. Prove that if G is any group, Z(G) is a normal subgroup of G.
Solution
1 ∈ z (G ) , since 1g = g1 for all g ∈G

Consequently z (G)≠φ

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 If g1 , g2 ∈ z ( G ) and g ∈G , then ( 1 2 ) ( 1 ) 2
g g g−1 = gg g−1

= g(
g1 ) g−1
2

g
1−1
= 2 since
gg2 = g2g implies

g−1 −1
2 g=g 2 . If follows that z(G) is a subgroup of G.

If g ∈G and h ∈ z ( G ) , then gh = hg and so

−1
h = g-1hg. Hence g hg ∈ z ( G ) for all g ∈G and all h ∈ z (G )
Thus z(G) is normal in G.

MWU, SMS, Mathematics course team Tesfaye Teferi 47 | P a g e