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PROFESSIONAL
SERVICES

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Training Solutions
Provider

Contact: Samuel Kiser

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 TELEPHONY NETWORKS
BASIC OVERVIEW
____________

GLOBAL PROFESSIONAL SERVICES

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 Introduction
Network Overview - Course Module NW-1

Welcome to the ever- changing science of telephony !

It is a major part of the world of Communications.

This course is designed to provide a high level overview of the telephony network
and how it operates.

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 Network Overview
In the early days -
The first telephone network consisted of telephone sets connected to a switchboard.
You talked to an operator who manually inserted patch
cords into jacks to connect the calling party to the called
party. You even had to crank a handle to generate a ringing
signal to alert the operator you wanted to place a call.

A long distance call connection was timed by a precision

clock called a Calculagraph. It was started and stopped by
the operator and would print on a card for billing purposes,
as the start/stop lever was pulled. Today, of course, it is all
automatic using digital electronics.

The telephone network transported local voice traffic over a two wire
copper cable “loop”. The loop is a pair of conductors called a “tip and ring”,
named for the metal connection points on the plug that was plugged into the cord
board. Long distance calls used 4 wires (2 pairs), called trunks, between telephone
office locations.

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 Network Overview
In the early days -
The network had a service area that was limited
by the DC power plant used to power the
telephone circuit and the resistance of the
copper cable.
The modern telephone network is:
diversified and able to provide a variety of services
including Video, Voice, Digital Data, Fax and
Analog data transmission through the
network. Carrier systems combine (multiplex)
numerous circuits for transmission over copper cable pairs and in effect provide “pair gain”.
Microwave and Satellite systems increase the distance signals can be transmitted.

Fiber Optic systems have supplanted Microwave and Satellite as the medium of choice for
local and long haul traffic. High bandwidth (large capacity) and complex digital signal
processing / multiplexing are supported by fiber optics and allow the network to transport
multiple services over the same facilities virtually error free.

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 Service Areas

Central Office Central Office

Switch Switch

Copper
pairs

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 OUTLINE – LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION

LOCAL NETWORK

LOCAL WITH TANDEM OFFICE

CALL ROUTING

INTEREXCHANGE LOCAL CALLS

LONG DISTANCE CALLS

INTERLATA NETWORK

INBAND VS OUT OF BAND SIGNALING

SS7 OVERVIEW

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 Introduction-

The early telephone network was designed to allow customers to talk to each
other. At first, customers communicated over copper cable pairs connected to
a manual switchboard. As stated earlier, an attendant would receive verbal
requests to place a call. Plugging a cord into a board to connect the two phone lines
together established the call. This system worked in small towns but as more and
more subscribers attached to the network, this type of manual switching was not
capable of handling the demand. Eventually, automatic switches were developed.

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 Local Network

LOCAL LOCAL
LOOP LOOP

STA. A STA.B
CO SWITCH

The Local Network is an area where phone calls are toll free.

Station A dials the number of station B.

The CO Switch recognizes both numbers are on the same

switch and connects the 2 phones together.

Network Configuration:
1 - Central Office Switch
2 - Local Loops
2 - Telephone sets

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 Telephones located on different local switches
TRUNK
CO A CO B

LOCAL LOCAL
LOOP LOOP
STA A STA B

Station A dials Station B.

Switch A recognizes the dialed number is not on the same switch and routes the call to
Switch B. Switch B identifies the number belongs to station B and connects the two stations
together.
Note: A Trunk is a network Facility that is terminated by a Switch on both ends. Trunks are
usually 4 wire facilities (This means separate transmit and receive paths).

Network Components:
2 - Central Office Switches
1 - Trunk
2 - local loops
2 - Telephone Sets

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 Tandem Switching LOCAL
TANDEM
As network size increases direct trunks TRUNK TRUNK
between switches may be busy.
A Tandem Switch is added to handle trunk CO A CO B
DIRECT
overflow and route calls between switches TRUNK
LOCAL LOCAL
that do not have direct trunks or the direct
LOOP LOOP
trunk group is blocked (all trunks are busy).

Call Flow: STA A STA B

In this example, Station A dials the phone number of Station B. Switch A recognizes the
number belongs to Station B, on Switch B and attempts to route the call over the direct trunk to
Switch B. However, the direct trunk is busy. The switch then routes the call to the tandem and
the tandem then routes the call to Switch B, then to Station B. The tandem handles overflow
calls for local switches and also serves as a gateway to other local or long distance networks.
Network Components:
3 - Trunks
2 - Local Switches
2 - Local Loops
2 - Telephone Sets
1 - Tandem Switch

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 Call Routing
The central office switch routes calls based on the ten-digit telephone number. The telephone
number is divided into three parts. These are known as Area Code (also called Numbering Plan
Area or NPA), NNX, and Station number.

NPA / AREA CODE - first 3 digits - identifies a large geographical area such as a state or part
of a state.

NNX - next 3 digits - identifies a local area, usually a city or part of a city. In large cities it may
identify one particular switching machine (an exchange) within that area code.

STATION NUMBER - last 4 digits - identifies a specific telephone line (customer).

CALL ROUTING: The switch looks at the NPA/AREA CODE to decide if the call is local to
its area. Next the NNX is checked to see if the called party is in the local switch or has to be
routed to another switch via a trunk. Finally the last 4 digits identify the specific telephone
subscriber.

In this scenario all signaling is transmitted over the actual lines the subscriber will talk on.
This type of signaling is called INBAND signaling.

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 Call routing

NPA NNX STATION

123 - 456 - 7890

FIRST 3 NEXT 3 LAST 4
DIGITS - DIGITS - DIGITS –

LARGE LOCAL AREA AN INDIVIDUAL

GEOGRAPHIC TOWN, SMALL TELEPHONE LINE
AREA CITY OR PART WITHIN THE
OF A CITY NPA / NNX

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 Intralata Calls INTRALATA
TANDEM 1
INTRALATA
TANDEM 2
INTRALATA
TRUNK
Tandem switches are also used to LOCAL LOCAL
connect other local area switches TRUNK TRUNK
that are not connected by direct
trunks. In this example Station A CO A CO B
calls Station B, but Station B is
LOCAL LOCAL
in a different area code. Station A
LOOP LOOP
dials the number for station B.
The local switch recognizes the STA A
local number is not in its area and STA B
routes the call to Tandem 1. Tandem 1 knows that the area code is located on Tandem 2
and routes the call to it. Based on the NNX the call is then routed to Local switch B.
Local switch B then terminates the call to station B.

Network Components:
2 - Tandem Switches
2 - Local Switches
3 - Trunks
2 - Local Loops
2 - Telephone Sets

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 Local Long Distance

Local, Long distance or Intralata, Long distance calls are handled like the example on
the previous slide. However, toll charges will be assessed for completing the call.

A LATA (Local Access Transport Area) is the area designated by the PSC (Public
Service Commission) for local and local long distance toll calls that can be handled by
the local telephone carrier. Calls within the LATA are called INTRALATA calls and
are billed by the local telephone carrier. This was a result of Divestiture in 1984, where
AT&T and the Bell companies were split apart, as mandated by the U.S. government.

INTERLATA calls traverse two or more LATA’s. Switching calls between LATA’s is
the responsibility of the INTERLATA EXCHANGE CARRIERS (IEC’s), AT&T,
SPRINT, MCI, etc. These calls are usually billed by the IEC.

Calls were processed according to these rules from 1984 until the last couple of years,
when the FCC allowed the local Bell entities back into the Interlata long distance
business once they met certain requirements. Today, customers specify whom they want
to provide their telephone service, both local and long distance.

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 Interlata call
CALL FLOW:
LONG
LONG
Station A calls Station B. INTERLATA DISTANCE INTERLATA
TANDEM DISTANCE
The local switch identifies NETWORK
NETWORK TANDEM
the number as a call that
must be routed over an INTRALATA INTRALATA
INTERLATA EXCHANGE TANDEM TANDEM
CARRIER (IEC) Network. LOCAL
LOCAL
The call is routed to the TRUNK
TRUNK
INTRALATA Tandem. The
CO A CO B
INTRA LATA Tandem
routes the call to the IEC
LOCAL LOCAL
tandem. LOOP LOOP

Depending on the distance

between LATA’s the call STA. A STA. B
may be routed over
LATA A
(continued - next page) LATA B

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 Interlata call cont’d

INTERLATA LONG
LONG INTERLATA
several IEC Switches before TANDEM DISTANCE
DISTANCE TANDEM
delivery to an INTRALATA NETWORK
NETWORK
Tandem in LATA B. After
INTRALATA INTRALATA
the call reaches LATA B, the TANDEM TANDEM
Local network routes the call
LOCAL LOCAL
to the subscriber at B. The TRUNK TRUNK
IEC receives time based Toll
charges for the duration of CO A
CO B
the call. The local carrier
receives a fixed access fee LOCAL LOCAL
per line for connection to the LOOP LOOP
work.
STA. A
STA. B

LATA A LATA B

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 Inband – vs – Out of Band Signaling
Signaling is the process of sending alerting signals or information across the network. So far
we have discussed call routing based on digits transmitted over the same path as the actual
conversation. Transmitting signaling over the same path is called INBAND SIGNALING.

Out of Band signaling is the transmission of signaling information over a separate circuit or
path. Out of band signaling has the advantage of not tying up network equipment during the
call setup phase.
The Out of BAND system currently in use is called Signaling System 7 or SS7. SS7
uses at least two data link circuits (56 kbps or higher) to establish communications
between a local or tandem switch and a Signal Transfer Point (STP).

Call requests are converted into a SS7 packet of data and transmitted to the STP. The
STP passes the packet to the SCP (Signal Control Point) for database lookup of the
telephone number. The database contains information about the telephone numbers
and services that are subscribed to that number. The database returns the required
information needed to complete the call.

Trunks are reserved through the network, but not actually used until verification that
the far end telephone is not busy. The SS7 network is a separate network devoted to
switching calls.

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 Network with SS7 Signaling
INTERLATA
INTERLATA INTERLATA
TANDEM
TRUNK TRUNK
56 KBP/S 56 KBP/S
LOCAL
LINKS LINKS LOCAL
TANDEM
TANDEM
LOCAL
LOCAL
TRUNK
TRUNK
STP
LOCAL LOCAL
SWITCH A SCP SWITCH B

STA. A STA. B

A call placed from station A to station B generates a call request to the STP from the local switch.
The STP then accesses the SCP. The SCP replies with routing information to the STP. The STP
contacts all switches involved in completing the call, checks if the far station is busy and for trunk
availability. The trunks are reserved until a path is verified from end to end. If the line is busy or
a path cannot be found, a busy signal is returned to the customer, and the reserved trunks are
released for use on other calls.

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 Network with SS7 Signaling cont’d
INTERLATA
INTERLATA INTERLATA
TANDEM
TRUNK TRUNK
56 KBP/S 56 KBP/S
LOCAL
LINKS LINKS LOCAL
TANDEM
TANDEM
LOCAL
LOCAL
TRUNK
TRUNK
STP
LOCAL LOCAL
SWITCH A SCP SWITCH B

STA. A STA. B

The SS7 links, STP’s, and SCP’s are redundant. If a link fails, the backup takes over.
Links are route, equipment and power diversified. The backup STP and SCP are
located in different CO’s.

The Wireless network is also connected to the SS7 network. Caller ID information is
supported by SS7. The SS7 network is very carefully monitored. Failures can result in
towns being isolated.

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 The SS7 Network

1. A packet data network that overlays the traditional network and

provides signaling control.

2. Transfers call signaling information from the voice/payload path

into the separate control path conserving precious payload time.

3. Provides/shares the call signaling information to switches up and

down the line to allow them to correctly set up the user path.

4. Prevents tying up switches and facilities in the event the call cannot
be completed.

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 Summary

The telephone network began simply and became more

and more complex. The modern network is diverse and
can transport a variety of signals.

• The early network was made up of telephones, a switch and cable pairs.

• The network grew and tandems and trunks were added.

• LATAs were introduced to identify local service areas.

• Interlata companies carry phone calls between LATAs.

• Signaling System 7 was developed to provide out of band signaling

and more efficient processing of telephone calls.

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 Lesson 2 - The Telephone

OUTLINE -- LESSON 2

INTRODUCTION

OPERATION OF THE TELEPHONE

DC SIGNALING REQUIREMENTS

AC CONTROL SIGNALS

ALERTING TONES

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 Introduction:
This lesson explores the telephone and its operation.

Telephone

Central Office Central Office

Switch Switch
Loop

Copper
pairs Carrier
system

RT
Remote
Terminal
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 Operation of the Telephone

• Telephones convert sound waves into electrical energy.

• The electrical signal is transmitted thru the network.

• Human voice is contained in a 4khz wide channel (bandwidth).

300 Hz to 3300 Hz

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 Inside the phone

The handset contains a transmitter and a receiver rec

CO Switch trans

Line H T,R pair H

card

The handset cord has 4 wires in it, 2 for transmit, 2 for receive.

A device in the phone called a hybrid transformer combines the two directions into
one pair of wires (the local loop) that is bidirectional.

The hybrid was originally made up of transformers, but is now electronic in both
phones and CO switches.

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 Inside the phone- cont’d’

The hybrid is not perfect: this imperfection helps when using the phone,
in that you can hear yourself talk. The reflection back of your own voice
is called sidetone.

rec

CO Switch trans

Line H T,R pair H

card

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 Inside the phone- cont’d

The hybrid is not perfect: it hurts in the switch/network because it reflects

the signal back to the talker. Because of the delay of the reflection back in
a long distance call, it is annoying. This reflection is called echo.
rec

Switch line card trans

To local and
long distance H T,R pair H
trunks

Echo cancellers can eliminate echo in long distance networks. They are
not usually required for distances less than about 500 miles.

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 DC Signaling Range

Telephones need a minimum of 20 milliamps of DC current to function.

- 48 volts ( the amount of voltage supplied by the CO batteries to a typical telephone

circuit) can provide 20 milliamps DC over a maximum resistance of 2400 ohms.

The 2400 ohms contain certain fixed values.

What determines the maximum loop resistance ? CO BATTERY

2400 ohms total for 20 ma
– 400 ohms CO battery feed resistance, 200 in tip, 200 in ring -48 vdc--- ---- R
– 25 ohms for drop wire - telephone pole to house --- ---- T
– 10 ohms for central office wiring
– 400 ohms for the telephone set =
1,565 ohms left for loop resistance of actual cable pair. ( 1.565 KΩ )

Most Telcos engineer for something below the maximum of 1565 ohms,
usually somewhere around 1465 ohms, to allow for equipment and cable
variations.

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 Loop limits

Depending on cable size and resistance a telephone set can be located approximately 4
to 5 miles away from the CO and still operate satisfactorily without any additional
voltage boost.

Telephones located outside of these distances will require the addition of electronics
called loop extenders (which boost the voltage) or they may be put on a carrier system..

Loaded or Nonloaded pairs

400 ohms
resistance -48 volts
1565 ohms cable resistance 400 ohms
resistance

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 VF (voice frequency) Loss
The loop also introduces a loss of volume to the signal (voice conversation) as it
travels down the cable pair. This loss is measured in decibels (dB) named after
Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone.

The term dBm refers to a dB referenced to a milliwatt of power. ( 0 dBm =

.775 volts into 600 ohms.) The dBm measurement is used to determine the loss
in volume to the voice signal between the CO and the customer location.

A long loop requiring a loop extender (DC) may also require amplification of the
VF signal (AC). (Approximately 8 dB loss - max .)

A load coil, a small coil of wire like device, connected to the cable pair
every 6000 feet may also be used as another way to reduce VF loss.

However, while aiding low frequency voice signals, load coils prohibit the use of
newer digital services, such as DSL. Load coils must be removed from the cable
pair before DSL service can be installed.

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 AC CONTROL SIGNALS

Various AC signals are used to alert or notify customers of call status:

DIALTONE: A combination of 440 & 880 HZ tones. Dial tone is the sound you hear when
you pick up the telephone. Dial tone is used to notify a customer that the Central Office switch
is ready to receive a call request.

20 HZ RINGING : 20 Hz @ 90 VAC is used to ring the bell in the telephone set.

This alerts subscribers of incoming calls. This comes from a ring generator in the CO.

120 IPM: Fast busy - alerts customer called party line is busy.

160 IPM: RECEIVER OFF HOOK – loud signal used to alert customer
that telephone is left off hook.

DUAL TONE MULTI FREQUENCIES : also know as TOUCHTONE (@TRADEMARK

AT&T) – DTMF is a combination of two frequencies. Each combination represents an
individual number or symbol on the phone pad.

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 DIAL PULSING
There are two methods for producing dialed digits. Dial Pulsing is the original
method for making a phone call. When a subscriber picks up the phone to make a
call, the loop is closed and dc current flows from the Central Office thru the handset.
The rotary dial on the telephone is used to dial the telephone number. The rotary dial
produces dial pulses by mechanically opening and closing the loop.

Rotary dial telephones are equipped with cams to calibrate the dial pulse to ten pulses
per second. The digit receiver in the CO cannot handle dial pulses that are
transmitted faster than ten pps.
DIALED 4 3
2
DIGITS 5
6 1

7
0
8

9
0

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 DTMF Dialing

Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) are the tones produced by the touch pads on a
telephone set. DTMF combines two tones to produce a dialed digit. DTMF can be
transmitted and received faster than dial pulses. DTMF also has the advantage of
portability across the network. A DTMF pulse can be transmitted across any analog
circuit. Dial pulses can only be transmitted on circuits with DC continuity. Circuits that
traverse carrier systems rarely maintain DC continuity.

1209~ 1336~ 1477~

1 2 3 697~
DTMF is the preferred method of dialing
digits. The diagram shows the DTMF tones. 4 5 6 770~
For example, dialing a “2” requires the
combination of 1336 and 697 HZ. A 852~
7 8 9
receiver (or tone detector) in the CO
recognizes the incoming tone as a 2 having
been dialed by the subscriber. * 0 # 941~

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 Summary

Telephones convert sound waves into electrical energy.

DC current is used to power the telephone.

20 milliamps of current are required to power the telephone.

AC tones are used for Dial Tone, Busy, and Reorder.

Dial pulses/ DTMF tones are used to transmit digits to the

telephone switch.

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Lesson 3 – Outside Plant

OUTLINE – LESSON 3

INTRODUCTION

THE EARLY NETWORK

CABLE PAIRS
NONLOADED CABLE PAIRS
LOADED CABLE PAIRS
BRIDGE TAP

SUBSCRIBER LOOP CARRIER & D4 BANKS

FIBER OPTICS
 Introduction

This lesson looks at cable “make-up”, the electrical properties of cable pairs, the
differences between loaded and non-loaded pairs, bridge taps, Subscriber Loop
Carrier (SLC), D4 banks and Fiber Optics.
 Basic Network

In the beginning the network consisted of a telephone set, a cable pair

and a switch.

Local Network

Loaded or nonloaded cable pairs

CO
Switch
400 ohms 1565 ohms cable
48 volts +
resistance resistance
400 ohms
resistance
 Cable Pairs
A cable pair consists of a pair of copper wires. Each wire is covered by insulation.

Cable pairs come in different gauges. The wire gauge (diameter) specifies the size of
the wire. Cable pair gauges range from smallest, 26 gauge, to largest 19 gauge.
22 and 24 gauge are the two intermediate sizes.
BINDER
The two insulated copper wires are twisted together to GROUP
form a pair. A group of pairs are twisted together to
form a 25 pair binder group. Binder groups are 1 2
combined to form the appropriate size cable, i.e.,
100 pairs or 200 pairs or larger.
PROTECTIVE 4 3
COVERING

Once a cable is formed, it is coated with a protective covering. Older cables were
coated with lead. Newer cables are coated with Plastic. Depending on the application,
metallic sheaths are added for strength, shielding or armor plating.

The copper pairs are covered with paper (pulp) or plastic (PIC). A sticky gel fills the
voids in PIC cables to keep water out. Air pressure is used on older lead cables to keep
water out. Water in a cable can cause problems such as shorts, noise or crosstalk.
 Non-loaded –vs- loaded pairs

RESISTANCE CAPACITANCE INDUCTANCE (Coil of wire)

Cable pairs electrical characteristics consist of resistance, capacitance and inductance.

Each of these components produces a negative effect on voice conversations or data traffic.
Resistance limits the flow of electricity through the pair. Capacitance attenuates high
frequencies, and Inductance acts as a low pass filter. Capacitance and resistance are the
most detrimental to voice traffic.

The effects of resistance can be reduced by boosting the – 48 volt talk battery to a higher
voltage. Range extenders, often called “REG units”, are used for this purpose.

Inductance cancels out the effects of capacitance. Researchers discovered that by adding
inductance, to reduce capacitance, the voice frequency response (how the other person’s
voice sounds) and VF loss, could be improved.

88 millihenries of inductance, added at an interval of every 6000 feet of cable to offset

the capacitance, is sufficient. A device known as a load coil is added to the cable pairs.
Cables that have load coils added are called loaded cables.
 Non-loaded –vs- loaded pairs

Nonloaded cable pairs

Advantages: Non-loaded pairs can carry high-speed data circuits (56 Kbps, ISDN,
DSL and T1 carrier speeds). They are easier and less expensive to
install and maintain. They are compatible with all voice and data
services.

Disadvantages: There are limited distances that voice frequencies can travel without
special treatment.
 Non-loaded-vs-loaded pairs

88 88 88 88

6 kilofeet
Loaded cable pairs

Advantages: The addition of load coils provides improved performance in

the voice frequency range (300 hz to about 3300 hz). Load
coils are an inexpensive way to increase analog performance
by decreasing VF loss.

Disadvantages: Load coils act as a low pass filter. This means only frequencies
below about 3500 Hz can be passed. This eliminates loaded
cable from use on any high-speed data circuits. In fact, a great
portion of the cable pairs that were loaded have had the load
coils removed. Also, misplaced load coils cause transmission
impairments. Extra effort is required when adding new cable to
insure the cable is loaded properly.
 Bridge tap
Cable pairs were installed to provide telephone service to customers. The larger cables were
installed in the most populated areas. Cable was expensive to install. Customers moving
from place to place would order service, then later cancel that service, when they moved. To
better handle service demands, pairs were bridged together and run down multiple streets.
Thus, the same numbered pair would appear on several streets. A customer that ordered
service would terminate his service on a pair that ran past his house. The cable that was
bridged to his pair then became BRIDGE TAP. Bridge tap is a piece of cable that is
attached to a working pair with the end of the bridged pair(s) left open. Excessive bridge tap
can impair transmission quality.

Example: CO
Cable pair 12 is providing SUB C
EXCHANGE
service to subscriber A. CABLE
Pair 12 is also bridged
down the streets of subs.
B and C. BRIDGE TAP
Pair 12

SUB A SUB B
 Subscriber loop carrier (SLC)
Subscriber Loop Carrier systems first appeared on the scene during the late 1960s. SLC
systems are an adjunct to the cables/pairs already in outside plant. SLC systems take the
customers voice (analog) signal and converts it into a digital signal for transport to the
CO, and back. Digital signals are easier to transmit, than analog signals.

SLC systems are often referred to as Pair Gain systems because the equipment combines 24
customer’s signals on to 2 pairs of copper wires. One pair is for transmitting to the CO and
the other pair is for receiving from the CO. Since only 2 pairs of wires are needed to
accommodate 24 separate conversations, we effectively “gain” 22 cable pairs. This is a huge
cost savings, that is used to offset the initial expense of the electronics. SLC systems allow
us to serve customers beyond the range of 4 – 5 miles, for copper pairs.

The outside plant portion of the SLC system is known as a Remote Terminal (RT). The RT
can be mounted on a pole, placed inside a hut, or in an environmentally controlled “vault”.

RESIDENCE 1
TRANMSMIT TO CO
CUSTOMER PAIRS SLC
(VF SIGNALS) RT DIGITAL
RECEIVE FROM CO
RESIDENCE 24
 Subscriber loop carrier (SLC)-cont’d
There are 2 different types of SLC systems: stand alone (or traditional) and integrated.
Inside the CO the traditional SLC system terminates the digital signals coming from the
RT in the field into a COT (Central Office Terminal). The signals are converted back to
analog and wired into the analog switch machine for routing to the called party, or to some
other destination if it is a non-switched circuit of some type.
CO
TRANSMIT TO CO 24 ANALOG
SLC
DIGITAL COT CONVERSATIONS
RT
TO THE SWITCH
RECEIVE FROM CO

Integrated SLC systems do not utilize a COT. The switch machine that serves these RTs is
a digital switch. Since the signals arriving from the RTs are already digital, they can be fed
directly in to the switch itself for call processing.
 D4 Banks
The DS1 system is similar in function to the SLC system, except it is used in the
INTEROFFICE network. It requires 2 D4 channel banks, 1 in each CO, and is used to
transport 24 digital signals between the COs. It requires 2 metallic cable pairs (one to
transmit signals and one to receive them from the far end).

DS1 systems were actually deployed in the interoffice network prior to the SLC systems
in the customer loop.

Central Office Central Office

D4 D4
Bank Bank

2 metallic trunk pairs

 Fiber Optics
Placing fiber optic cable in outside plant has been on-going for the last 10+ years. The
process is slow and expensive. Much of the Interoffice network has been completed, but
only a very small percentage of customer loop plant is fiber optic.

A fiber optic system requires a Fiber Optic Terminal (FOT) at each end. The FOT requires a
digital input. The signal is first digitized and then fed into the FOT where the electrical signal
is converted to a light signal for transmission to the far end.
Central Office

D4 FAR
FOT END
24 analog Bank
CO
inputs
Electrical
OPTICAL

The light signals have the advantage of being much faster and offer the customer a whole new
array of services, because of the increased bandwidth available. Also, the fiber cables and optic
signals are not bothered by electrical interferences, such as those created by overhead power
cables and lightening storms. Many advantages, but again, it is expensive.
 Summary

Wire (cable pairs) come in different gauges.

Cable pairs electrical characteristics include: resistance, capacitance, inductance.

Cables can be loaded or non-loaded.

Bridge tap can cause transmission impairments.

Carrier systems carry 24 circuits over 2 cable pairs.

Fiber optic systems are gradually replacing metallic based carrier systems.
 Lesson 4 – The Central Office

OUTLINE – LESSON 4

INTRODUCTION

CABLE VAULT

DC POWER PLANT

DISTRIBUTING FRAMES

CENTRAL OFFICE SWITCH

TOLL AREA
DSX1
DSX3

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 Introduction

The CO is the building that houses the equipment required to provide telephone
service. Almost all customer services pass through a CO at some point. The building:

• usually is hardened to withstand tornadoes and earthquakes.

• provides a controlled environment for the switching machine and other equipment.

This lesson describes the CO and the equipment within.

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 Cable Vault
The cable vault is the area where the copper and fiber cables enter the CO.

The cable vault is usually located underground.

Air pressure can be applied to underground cables to keep the cables dry. This is
particularly important for paper insulated cables.

Underground conduits enter and leave the building through the vault.

Cables, known as “Riser Cables” connect to the outside plant cables entering the
building and extend these pairs to the equipment and facilities upstairs. The riser
cables usually terminate on a distributing frame in the equipment room.
RISER
CABLE

OUTSIDE CABLE
PLANT X SPLICE
CABLE

CABLE VAULT

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 DC Power Plant
TO
TELEPHONE
EQUIPMENT

POWER
AC
COMPANY

DC POWER
TELEPHONE CO.
RECTIFIERS

BATTERIES

The DC Power plant provides DC power to telephone equipment in the CO. Rectifiers
are used to convert commercial AC to DC current. This DC current is used to charge
-48 volt batteries. Once charged, the -48 volt batteries provide power to the CO
equipment.

The batteries also act as filters in that they absorb voltage spikes in the commercial
source, thereby keeping a steady -48 volts applied to the equipment.

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 DC Power Plant-cont’d.
TO
TELEPHONE
EQUIPMENT

POWER
AC
COMPANY

DC POWER
TELEPHONE CO.
RECTIFIERS

BATTERIES

The central office will deplete the batteries in a few hours if commercial AC power is
not restored. For this reason central offices are equipped with diesel or turbine
engines of sufficient size to provide AC power until the commercial AC is restored.
Fuel tanks are located on premises.

The DC power plant, combined with the engines for backup , allows the CO to provide
provide uninterrupted phone service during storms or long commercial power outages.

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 Distributing Frames
A distributing frame’s function is to connect metallic cable pairs to the wiring from the
switch and other equipment. In that manner, a cable pair can be cross-connected
(wired) to a switching machine location to provide dial tone and access to the network
of other subscribers. This is known as the MDF, or Main Distributing frame.

The MDF provides:

• Equipment and personnel protection from

foreign voltages.

• Termination of equipment and facilities.

CROSS-CONNECT
• A flexible means of connecting components
to build a circuit (via jumper wires).
WIRING
TO
SWITCH

METALLIC
LOOP TO
CUSTOMER

MDF
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 Distributing Frames-cont’d
CROSS-CONNECT
There are several types of MDFs:

The Conventional frame is manually

assigned and administered. WIRING
TO
The COSMIC frame is assigned and SWITCH
administered by computer software. METALLIC
LOOP TO
CUSTOMER

MDF

Another type of frame is known as the Toll frame. This type of frame is used for
Special Services. Special equipment, used for special applications, can be found on
this frame. You will find D channel banks, amplifiers, data bridges, etc., located on this
Frame.

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 CO Switch

The central office switch:

• Terminates customer lines and switches calls between them.

• Terminates trunks. (A trunk is a facility between 2 switches.)

• Provides dial tone to alert customers the switch is ready to receive digits.

• Provides ringing to alert customers to incoming calls.

• Provides custom calling features, egs., call waiting, three way calling, call
forwarding, etc.

SWITCH TYPES:
STEP BY STEP
CROSSBAR
ANALOG ESS
DIGITAL ESS

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 CO Switch-cont’d.
The first fully automatic switching machines were the Step By Step and Crossbar
switches. They were electromechanical. A group of individual relays and switches
provided dial tone, and routed the call through the office in response to the digits
dialed. They were labor intensive and parts wore out rapidly.

The electromechanical switches were eventually replaced by the ESS (Electronic

Switching Systems) machines. The first ESS machines were analog inside and used
analog interface circuit packs to handle customer traffic.

As more and more of the outside plant converted to digital equipment (D4 banks,
SLC, etc.) it made sense to convert the ESS machine to a digital switch. Many, but
not all, switches are digital today. Many calls, whether local or long distance, are
handled digitally from end to end.

DIGITAL
ANALOG ANALOG
LINE LINE

SLC RT SLC RT
DIGITAL DIGITAL
SWITCH SWITCH
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 CO switch-cont’d.
It has been forecasted that, eventually, nearly every telephone line will be switched
by a digital switching machine of some kind. The digital switch is more efficient than
any of it’s predecessors:

• It has all electronic components that are more reliable.

• It is not as expensive as comparable switches.

• It is faster than the electromechanical components used in other switches.

• It accommodates more complex signaling data.

• It is modular and can be easily “grown”.

• It requires conversion of analog to digital only at the end locations.

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 Toll Area
Toll equipment is any equipment that is used to provide Special Services. Telephone
services can be divided into 2 categories: POTS and Special Services. POTS stands
for Plain Old Telephone Service and includes basic dial tone services (not Long
Distance) and whatever equipment is required to provide it.

Special Services, simply, are any services that do not fit into the POTS category.
WATS lines, data services, PBX trunks, megalink services, optical rings, etc.,
are examples of Special Services.

The equipment used to provide some of these services is found in the “Toll” area
of the CO. Some examples are: metallic digital systems, test systems, Optical
terminals, DSX jacks, etc.

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 Central Office bays
• Central office equipment is mounted on shelves in bays.

• These bays are 23 inches wide; height varies by CO.

• Below is an example of a multiple bay configuration in a CO.

SONET D4 DLC SMAS

SONET D4 DLC SMAS

SONET D4 DLC SMAS

D4 DLC

SONET D4 DLC T3AS

SONET D4 DLC RMS DS1

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 Digital Signal Crossconnect (DSX)
Individual wires are used for wiring individual circuits on a frame. Once multiple circuits
have been combined (multiplexed) together on a carrier system for transport to a
foreign destination, wiring is done at the DSX level. (Circuits are wired onto the carrier
system individually and carriers are tied together at DSX jack level.) Additionally, the
jacks provide local test access.

The Digital Signal Cross connect (DSX) is a jack field that terminates digital signals.
DSX jacks are mounted in bays in the CO. Signals are terminated on the jacks and
cross connected together using wires. All signals in the DSX area conform to a
standard level. This allows any signal in a DSX to be connected to any other signal
in the bay. There are two main types of DSX bays used in a CO. They are the
DSX-1 and DSX-3.

DSX-1 jacks terminate T1 Carrier systems. Twisted pair jumpers are used to
connect T1s together. The jacks are mounted in a 23 inch wide rack. The number
of jacks in a shelf varies from 24 to 84 jacks in a bay, based on the manufacturer.

DSX-3 jacks terminate T3 carrier systems. Coaxial cable is used to connect T3

signals together.

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 Digital Signal Crossconnect (DSX)-cont’d.

TL

MON

OUT

IN

Monitor jack Transmission path jack

Activity indicator lamp (plugging a patch cord into

these jacks interrupts the
circuit path)

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 Summary

The CO is the building that house the telephone equipment. It contains the cable vault,
the DC power plant, distributing frames, switching machine and toll equipment.

The cable vault is usually underground. The various cables enter the CO at this point.

The DC power plant charges the -48 volt batteries which supply power to telephone
equipment.

Distributing frames are used to “wire together” circuit components.

The CO switch connects to customer lines and switches calls.

The toll area contains all the equipment for non POTS services.

DSX jacks are used for wiring carrier systems together and for monitoring, testing
and patching.

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 Lesson 5 - Services

OUTLINE – LESSON 5

INTRODUCTION

POTS

POTS – CUSTOM CALLING FEATURES

SWITCHED SPECIAL SERVICES

NON-SWITCHED SPECIAL SERVICES

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 Introduction

This lesson discusses POTS and some of the features that enhance POTS service.

Also included in the discussion are several of the more frequently requested
switched special services and non-switched special services. The latter are
often referred to as private lines.

“Specials” are telecommunication services provided exclusively to a requesting

customer, via a dedicated line or trunk. They may, or may not, be connected to
a switching machine.

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 “POTS”
POTS stands for Plain Old Telephone Service. POTS
is the basic telephone service provided by the
telephone company.

It is the telecommunications service provided to

customers which use one telephone line and routes
a call through a central location (switch) to the other
end. POTS is often referred to as basic service.

POTS is considered a universal service that is to

be available to just about everyone regardless
of location. Remote locations may use radio
systems or other expensive means to get the service
there.

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 Custom Calling Features
Custom Calling features are additional services that can be added to a POTS line.
These features are usually added via switch translations. A customer who has
existing phone service can add one or more features for a small nominal fee. Since
these services are add-ons to existing service, they are very profitable for service
providers. Some examples are listed below:

DISTINCTIVE RINGING: provides a different ringing tone to identify an

important call, eg., a spouse or child calling.

CALL RETURN: allows redialing of your last incoming call.

THREE WAY CALLING: allows customer to bridge 3 lines together during a call.

CALL WAITING: CO switch beeps or clicks during an existing call to alert the
customer of an incoming call. Customer can then flash the
switch hook to answer the caller or ignore the call.

CALLER ID: provides customer with phone number of incoming caller. The phone
may have a display screen built in, or a separate display device may
be added on.

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 Switched Special Services
Switched Special Services are those telephone services that are switched via a Central
Office switch but do not fall into the category of POTS. These services usually require
special translations or equipment. A few examples are listed below:

FOREIGN EXCHANGE LINES (FX) – are telephone lines that terminate on a foreign
switch. For example, a customer can purchase a line that terminates on a CO switch in a
distant city or town. The line appears as a local number in that distant city and all calls
made to local numbers in that city are toll free. FX lines are more expensive than POTS,
but customers who have a high calling volume into a certain city can save money by
purchasing an FX line and paying a flat monthly fee for the service.

WIDE AREA TELECOMMUNICATIONS SERVICE (WATS) – WATS is a switched

service that allows customers to make calls to large geographic areas at a reduced bulk rate.
There are 2 billing options: OUTGOING WATS AND INCOMING WATS.

800 SERVICE – this is a type of incoming WATS service that bills calls with an 800 area
code to the line receiving the call. If the call is Interlata, the call recipient (bill payer)
selects their preferred Interlata exchange carrier.

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 Switched Special Services-cont’d.
PBX TO CO TRUNKS – PBX stands for Private Branch Exchange. A PBX is a switch
that is owned by a customer. Some customers have large numbers of phone lines on
their premises. A PBX offers the advantage of local switching between the “on premises”
lines. Also, the PBX can concentrate outgoing calls onto a fewer number of trunks
connected to the CO.

TIE LINES – are a dedicated service that connects two PBXs together. The use of tie lines
can reduce the cost of long distance calls between two locations.

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 Non-switched Special Services
Non-switched special services (private lines) are an exclusive service between two
locations of a specific customer. Since the service does not go over the switched network,
the customer has access to a private, non-blocking connection at all times. This service
almost always requires special equipment and engineering. There are hundreds of
different non-switched special services. A few of the most common are listed below.

RING DOWN – a ring down is a dedicated telephone circuit between two points. The
caller picks up the telephone and automatically rings the called party.

MEGALINK – a Megalink is a dedicated facility (T1 carrier system) between two points.
The full bandwidth is available between the locations for sending and receiving
information, usually data. There is one circuit, which operates at 1.544 MB/S.

CHANNELIZED MEGALINK – similar to Megalink service, except there are 24

individual 64 KB/S communications circuits.

DS3 SERVICE – the bandwidth for this service is 45 MB/S. Once the customer jumps to
DS3 bandwidth, they have a cost effective means to implement a host of new technologies,
Including: video conferencing, workstation- based graphics, etc.

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 Summary

POTS is the basic telecommunications service.

Enhanced POTS, generally, are features added to switch translations and

include: caller ID, call return, 3 way calling, etc.

Switched special services require special translations and oftentimes special

equipment. Included are: WATS lines, FX lines, Tie lines, etc.

Non-switched special services are usually located between 2 customer locations.

They include: Megalinks, Ring Downs, DS 3 service, etc.

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