Unit 1

Subsurface Investigations for

Foundations
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Mr. S. P. Banne
Civil Engineering Department
PCCOE, Nigdi
 Syllabus
• University of Pune---TE Civil (2019 Course)---w.e.f. Juny 2022
• Foundation Engineering
• Teaching scheme Examination scheme
• Lectures: 3 hours/week In semester exam: 30 marks---1 hour
Paper
• End semester exam: 70 marks—2.5 hours Paper
• Unit-I Subsurface Investigations for Foundations (06 hours)
Purpose and planning of subsurface exploration. Methods of
Investigation: Trial pits, borings, depth & number of exploration
holes, core recovery, RQD, Core Log. Geophysical methods –
Seismic refraction and Electrical resistivity method. Disturbed
and undisturbed sampling, types of samplers, degree of
disturbance of a sampler. Field tests-- SPT, DCPT, SCPT and
Pressuremeter test.
• Unit-II Bearing capacity (06 hours)
Basic definitions, Modes of shear failure, Bearing capacity analysis- Terzaghi’s,
Hanson’s,
Meyerhof’s, Skempton’s and Vesics equations, IS code method - Rectangular and
Circular
Footings. Bearing Capacity evaluation- Plate Load Test and SPT, Housel’s perimeter
shear
concept. Bearing capacity of layered soil. Effect of water table on bearing capacity.
Effect of
eccentricity. Presumptive bearing capacity.
• Unit-III Settlement and Consolidation (06 hours)
• Settlement: - Introduction, Causes of settlement. Pressure bulb, Contact pressure.
Allowable
settlement, Differential settlement - I.S. criteria, Types - Elastic settlement,
consolidation
settlement. Use of Plate load test and SPT in settlement analysis. Allowable soil
pressure.
• Consolidation - Introduction, spring analogy, Terzaghi’s consolidation theory,
Laboratory
consolidation test, Determination of coefficient of consolidation- Square root of time
fitting
method and logarithm of time fitting method. Time factor. Rate of settlement and its
applications in shallow foundation. Introduction of Normal consolidation, Over
• Unit-IV Deep Foundations. (06 hours)
• Introduction, Pile classification, Pile installation-Cast in situ, driven and bored pile,
displacement and non displacement piles. Load carrying capacity of pile by static
method, Dynamic methods- Engineering news formula and Modified ENR formula.
Pile load test and Cyclic Pile load test. Group action-Feld rule, Rigid block method.
Negative skin friction. Settlement of pile group in cohesive soil by approximate
method. Piers and Caissons- Definition, Types and uses. Well foundation: components,
sand island method. Site visit is recommended to learn this topic.

• Unit VI Cofferdams and Foundation on Black Cotton Soils. (06 hours)

• Cofferdams: Types with steel sheet piles and precast concrete piles, interlocking
circular piles, RC Diaphragm wall method.
• Foundation on Black Cotton Soils: Characteristics of black cotton soil, swelling
potential and its evaluation methods, Engineering problems, Swelling pressure
measurement, Foundations on black cotton soil: design principles, Construction
techniques in B.C soils, under reamed piles- Design principles and its construction
Techniques. Stone columns, prefabricated vertical drains, preloading technique, and
vibroflotation technique.
Reference Books
1. Dr. B. J. Kasmalkar, “Foundation Engineering”, Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan,
Pune
2. Gopal Ranjan and A. S. Rao, “ Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics”, New
AgeInternational
Publishers, (2010)
3. Dr. B. C. Punmia, “ Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Laxmi
Publications.
4. Soil Mechanics—T.William Lambe--Wiley
5. J. E. Bowels, “Foundation Analysis and Design”, McGraw-Hill
6. Foudation Enginnering—P.C.Varghese--- PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
7 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering- V. N. S Murthy, Marcel Dekker,
Inc.Newyork..
8 Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering—Rao--Wiley
9. A. K. Arora, “ Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Standard
Publishers,2009.
10 Engineering in Rocks for Slopes.Foundations and Tunnels—T
Ramamurthy—PHI Learning
11. Geotechnical Engineering by Conduto, PHI, New Delhi.
12 Foundation Design Manual: N V Nayak, Dhanpat Rai Publications.
13. . International Steven Kramer, “Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering”,
Prentice Hall
Publications.
144Practical Handbook of Grouting : Soil-Rock and Structures---James Warner--
Wiley
15. IS 1892, 1893, 2911, 6403, SP36 (PART-II)
 Foundation Engineering:
• A foundation is interfacing element between the
superstructure and the underlying soil or rock.
• The loads transmitted by the foundation to the underling
soil must not cause soil shear failure or damaging
settlement of the superstructure.
• The art of selecting, designing, and constructing the
elements that transfer the weight (Weight may also
include horizontal loads in addition to vertical loads) of
a structure to the underlying soil or rock.
 Purpose of subsurface exploration.
• To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure.
• To determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
• To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements.
• To establish the ground water level and determine the properties of water.
• To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments.
• To select suitable construction techniques.
• To predict and to solve potential foundation problems.
• To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material.
• To investigate the safety of the existing structure and to suggest the remedial measures.
• Site investigation can be carried out by doing –1)
Reconnaissance survey
• a) site inspection ---topographical features and
ground water condition,behaviour of the existing
structure

• b) library study ---- includes soil map,toposheet,

aireal photo graph, flood record , history of seismic
activity etc.
• This above information decide the future program of
exploration.
• Object ---- To provide reliable, specific and detailed
information about the soil and ground water condition of
the site which may be required for safe and economic
design and execution of the Engg. Work.
• Depending upon the details or precision of subsoil data

• 2) Preliminary exploration
• 3) Detailed exploration
 Preliminary exploration

• Object --- To get an approximate picture of subsoil

conditions at relatively low cost, which will be sufficient
for the design and execution of minor and routine Engg.
project

• General exploration is able to give information about---

• 1) Depth, extent and composition of soil strata.
• 2) Ground water level
• 3) Engineering properties (w,density,comp. strength)
• 4) Preliminary selection of foundation type
 Detailed exploration

• For large engineering project subjected to heavy loads,

complex and costly foundations.

• Detailed exploration follows as a supplement to general

exploration which include to furnish the information about
soil properties such as shear strength, compressibility,
density index and permeability which are obtained by
performing a field test on undisturbed samples.

• Field tests such as vane shear tests, plate load tests,

permeability tests, dynamic properties of soil.
 Methods for soil exploration

• 1) Direct method (open excavation) or test pit

• 2) Semi direct method ( Boring)

• 3) Indirect method ( subsurface sounding,

penetration test and geophysical method)
 Direct Method-Open excavation
• This method is suitable for small depth up to 3.0
m. The cost of these increases rapidly with depth,
but it is suitable for all types of soil.

• 1) Pits and Trenches – depth of pit depends upon

the requirement of investigation.
• Up to 3m depth pit- without any lateral support.
• Deeper pits below ground water table , lateral
support provided.
• Trenches are long shallow pits.suitable on slopes.
• 2) Drifts and shafts- drifts are horizontal tunnels.
drifts should have minimum clear dimensions of
1.5 m width and 2 m height in hard rock.
• Shafts are large size vertical holes.
 Unit 1
module 2
 Boring

• Definition ---- Making or drilling boreholes in to the

ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock samples
from specified known depth is called as boring.
Methods for boring
• a) Auger boring
• b) Auger and shell boring
• c) Wash boring
• d) Percussion drilling or boring
• e) Rotary boring
 Auger boring
• Auger is a device that is useful for advancing a bore hole
in to the ground.
• Auger may be ----
• 1) Hand operated (used in cohesive and soft soil) depth
up to 3m to 6m.
• 2) power driven ( used for gravel also) depth greater
than 12m.
• Advantages-----1) light-weight inexpensive equipment
• 2) easy to carry into field site
• Disadvantages---- 1) disturbed sample
• 2)limit to depth of hand auguring due to operator
strength, borehole collapse or encountering water table
(collapse of saturated sediments into borehole).
Hand auger
Auger bit
Auger boring
 Auger boring

• The soil samples obtained by augers are badly disturbed

and are useful for identification purpose only.

If the sides of the hole cannot remain unsupported the

soil is prevented from falling in by means of pipe is
known as shell or casing
 Wash boring

• Wash boring is a fast and simplest method for advancing holes in

all types of soil ( except with boulder and rock) and also below
water table for which auger method is not suitable.
• The hole is drilled by first driving a casing about 2 to 3m long and
then inserting a hollow drill rod with a chisel shaped chopping bit .
• The soil sample obtained from wash boring method is very
disturbed sample and is not useful for the evaluation of engineering
properties, but wash boring are primary used for advancing bore
hole, whenever the soil sample is required the chopping bit is
replaced by sampler.
• The equipment used in wash borings is relatively light and
inexpensive.
• It is slow in stiff soils and coarse grained soil.
Wash boring
Wash boring process
 Percussion boring

• This method is suitable for advancing a hole in all types

of soil, boulders and rock .

• In this method, soil and rock formation are broken by

repeated blows of heavy chisel or bit suspended by a
cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during
boring, if not already present and the slurry or pulverized
materials is bailed out at intervals.

• The formation however get disturbed by the impact.

• This method is more expensive than other methods.
Percussion drilling or boring
 Rotary boring
• This is very fast method of advancing a bore hole in both rocks
and soils.

• A drill bit is fixed to the lower end of drill rod which is rotated by
power while being kept inform in contact with hole. drilling
fluid or bentonite slurry is forced under pressure through drill
rod and it comes up bringing the cutting to the surface.
• Even rock cores may be obtained by using suitable diamond
drill bits.

• This method is not suitable in porous deposits as the

consumption of drilling fluid would be probably high.
Rotary boring
 Planning an exploration program

• A carefully planned program of boring and sampling is

the crux of any exploration job. Resourceful and
intelligent personal trained in the principles of geology
and geotechnical engineering are necessary.

• The two important aspect of the boring are -------

• Spacing of boring
• Depth of boring
 Spacing of boring
• Spacing or number of boring for a project is related to the type, size and
weight of the proposed structure to the extent of variation in soil condition (
that permits safe interpolation between boring) to the funds available.
• It is impossible to determine the spacing of boring before an investigation
begins, since it depends on the uniformity of the soil deposits.
• Ordinarily a preliminary estimate of the spacing of boring is made.
• Spacing is increased if the thickness and depth of the different soil strata
appear about the same in all the boring, and it is decreased if additional data
is required.
• I.S. 1882-1979 “ code of practice for subsurface investigation for foundation”
has made the following recommendation
• a) For compact building site Covering an [email protected] he.--
• 1No. of borehole in each corner
• b) For small and less Important building -----------
• one at center will sufficient
 Spacing of boring
Sr.No. Nature of project Spacing of
boring (m)
1 Highway 300 to 600

2 Earth dam 30 to 60

3 Multistory building 15 to 30

4 Single storey 30 to 120

 Depth of exploration
• The depth from which a soil sample is collected is called as depth of
exploration.
• In general, exploration should carried out to a depth up to which the increase
in pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlement
or shear failure such a depth is called as Significant depth.
• It is generally safe to assumed the significant depth is generally taken as
depth at which the vertical stress is 20 % of the load intensity.
• The depth of work at the start of work may be decided according to the
following guide lines

• For building ( isolated spread or raft) ---- 1.5 times width

• Pile foundation ------- 10 to 30 m or 1.5 times width of structure
• Retaining wall ---1.5 times the exposed height of a face of wall
• Dams ----- 1.5 times the bottom width or twice the height H ( H is less than
30 m)
 Depth of Boring
1) Boring should be extended through any unsuitable foundation strata
(unconsolidated fill, organic soils, compressible layers) until soil of
acceptable bearing capacity is reached.
2) In general, boring should be extended to at least 1.5 to 2 times the
minimum width of the loaded area.
3) In the case of vary heavy structures (bridges), boring in most cases are
extended to bed rock, or at least one boring should be extended to bedrock.
• The following empirical equations can be used to estimate the minimum
depth of borings in office buildings:

• D boring = 3 S 0.7 (for light steel or narrow concrete buildings)

D boring = 6 S 0.7 (for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings)
• where S = number of stories in meter
 Soil samples
• Depending upon the degree of disturbance during sampling soil samples are
classified as---
• 1) Disturbed ---- Natural structure get modified. These samples represent
the composition and mineral content of soil. Disturbed samples can be used
to determine the index properties of the soil such as grain size, plasticity
characteristics, specific gravity.

• 2) Undisturbed --- Natural structure and other physical properties remains

preserved. Undisturbed samples are used for determining the engg.
Properties of the soil such as compressibility, shear strength and
permeability.
Disturbed sample is again classified as-
• A) Representative sample
• B) Non representative sample
1) Representative sample - Which contains all the minerals constitute of the soil (
natural water content may be preserved) but the structure may be significantly
disturbed . This sample are suitable for identification and determination of
certain physical properties such as sp. Gravity, Atterbergs limit etc.
2) Non representative sample -
• Which consist of mixture of various soils or rock strata, or some minerals
constitute have been lost.( natural water content may be disturbed)
• Sample obtained from auger and wash boring are non-representative sample
• Which are suitable only for providing qualitative information such as major
changes in subsoil strata.
 Unit 1
Module 3
 Sample Disturbance
• The sample disturbance depend upon the
design of the samplers( dimension of
cutting edge and sampling tube,
characteristic of non return valve and the
wall friction) and the method of sampling.
• The design features governing the degree
of disturbance are a) cutting edge b) inside
wall friction and non return valve
• Area ratio = D22- D12/ D12* 100
• Inside clearance = D3 – D1/ D1 * 100
• Outside clearance =D2 –D4 / D4 *100
where, D1= inner diameter of the cutting edge.
D2 = outer diameter of the cutting edge. D3 =
= inner diameter of the sampling tube. D4=
outer diameter of the sampling tube.
 Procedure for obtaining soil sample

• The soil sampler is initially pushed in a "closed" position

to the desired sampling interval using our hydraulic rig.
Keeping the sampler closed minimizes the potential of
cross contamination caused by sloughing
• The inner tip of the sampler is then retracted leaving a
hollow soil sampler
• The hollow sampler is then pushed in a locked "open"
position to collect a soil sample. The filled sampler and
push rods are then retrieved to the ground surface.
 Type of samplers
• 1) Depending upon the area ratio
• 2) Depending upon the mode of operation

• 1) Depending upon the area ratio

• a) Thick wall b) Thin wall
• (split spoon sampler) ( Shelby tube)
• (Area ratio is greater than10 to 25%) (Less than 10%)

• Ratio of disturbed area to total area is called as area ratio.

2) Depending upon the mode of operation

• A) Open drive sampler

• B) Stationary piston sampler
• C) Rotary sampler
 1) Split Spoon Sampler-

• It is basically a thick walled steel tube , split lengthwise.

• Used sampler for obtaining a disturbed sample of the soil standard
split spoon sampler.
• It consists mainly three parts a) Driving shoe b) Steel tube c) Coupling
• A drive shoe attached to the lower end serves as the cutting edge, a
sample head may be screwed at the upper end of the split spoon
sampler.
• The size of the spoon sampler is 35mm internal diameter and
50.8mm external diameter, the sampler is lowered the bottom of bore
hole by attaching it to the drill rod.
• The sampler is then driven by forcing it into the soil by blows of
hammer, the assembly of the sampler is then extracted from the hole.
The split tube is separated after removing the shoe and the coupling
and the sample is taken out.
Split Spoon Sampler-
 2) Thin walled type sampler ( Shelby tube)

• The sampling tube shall be made of steel, brass or aluminum.

• The lower end is leveled to form a cutting edge and is tapered to
reduce wall friction
• Dimension of the sampling tube are
• inside diameter =38mm
• outer diameter =40mm
• effective length =300mm
area ratio =10.9
• The sampler tube is attached to the drilling rod and lowered to the
bottom of the bore hole.
• Care shall be taken to push the tube in to the soil by a continuous
rapid motion without impact or twisting.
• Shelby tubes are used for obtaining undisturbed samples of clay.
 3) Stationary piston sampler

1) It contains a piston or plug attached to a

long piston rod extending up to the ground
surface through the drill rod.
2) The lower end of the sampler is kept closed
with the piston while the sampler is lowered
through the bore hole.
3)when the desired elevation is reached the piston
rod is clamped, thereby keeping the piston
stationary and the sampler tube is advanced
further in to the soil.
4)The sampler is then lifted up with piston rod in
the clamped position .
 4) Open drive sampler

• Generally sampler head is varies from 7.5cm to 12.5cm

in diameter and the tube length is variable but commonly
used tube length is 0.91m
• Open drive sampler may be thick or thin wall type
• It is a tube open at the lower end , the sampler head is
provided with a valve( vent) to permit water and air to
escape during sampling.
• The check value helps to retain the sample when the
sampler is lifted
• the tube may be seamless or split in to two parts.
 5) Rotary samplers

• These are the coral barrel types having an outer tube is provided
with cutting teeth and are movable thin wall liner inside.
• It is used for firm to hard cohesive soils and cemented soils.
• Coupling at the core barrel are separated the core unscrewed.
• The two halves of the barrel are separated and the sample is thus
exposed, the sample may be placed in a glass jar and sealed after
visual inspection.
• If it is need not examined in the field then a liner is inserted inside
the split spoon after separating the two halves the liner with the
sample is sealed with wax.
 Disturbed sampling
• Disturbed samples can be obtained by direct
excavations, augers and thick wall samplers.
• Which can be used for mechanical analysis ( water
content determination, index properties,compation and
stabilization test)
• Example ----- spilt spoon sampler
• The sampler should be transported and stored that the
original component is preserved and the water content
also does not change if preserved.
 Undisturbed sampling

• Undisturbed samples are obtained forcing a thin walled

sampler into the soil at the bottom of the bore hole or in
a test pit.
• The penetration of the sampler in to the soil should be
continuous and rapid, the sampler should never be over
driven so as to compress the sample. ( piston sampler)
• Which can be used to carry out test on shear,
consolidation and permeability.
• when the sample is taken out of the tube, its direction of
movement relative to the tube should be kept the same
as it was during sampling .
 RQD
• Rock quality designation ( RQD) is used to indicate the quality of rock
mass.
• RQD is defined the sum total lengths of the cores of the length 10 cm
and longer recovered from the drilling, expressed as a percentage of
the total length of the hole drilled.

• RQD = Total length of cores in pieces of 10 cm and longer X 100

length of run

• RQD of a rock mass indicates the quality of rock.

• 100-90 Excellent
• 90-75 Good
• 75-50 Fair
• 50-25 Poor
• <25 Very poor
Core recovery
 Unit 1
Module 4
 Geophysical method
• Geophysical exploration techniques permit a rapid evolution of sub soil
characteristics
• These methods also allow rapid coverage of large areas and less expansive
than conventional exploration by drilling .However in many cases, definitive
interpretation of the results is difficult.
• For that reason such technique should be used for preliminary work only.
• The major geophysical method are gravitational, magnetic, seismic(
refraction and reflection) and electrical resistivity.
• Out of these seismic refraction and electrical resistivity are commonly used
for civil engineering purposes.
• 1) Seismic method
• a) seismic refraction
• b) seismic reflection (two way travel time)
• c) continues surface wave system ( determine G &den.)
• d) down hole seismic survey ( cheapest & simplest).
 Seismic refraction method

• The seismic refraction method is based on the property of seismic

waves to refract (or be bent) when they travel from one medium to
another of different density or elasticity. The velocity of wave
transmission changes as it enters another material with different
elastic properties
• Seismic refraction calculations that allow the computation of layer
thickness.
• This method is fast and reliable in establishing profiles of different
strata, “provided that dipper layer have increasingly greater density and
thus higher velocities.”
• This method provide detailed information on the distribution of sub
layer and thickness with respect to seismic velocity.
• But the exact type of material cannot however be recognized and the
exploration should be supplemented by boring and sampling.
Seismic Refraction Line
geophone
Geophone and Spread Line
Shot point plate
 The center of this short seismic refraction line is a
ruggedized laptop and the yellow seismograph that
collects signals from a line of geophones.
 Electrical resitivity method
• The electrical resistivity of any conducting material having length L and
cross sectional area A can be defined as
• ρ =RA/L

• R=electrical resistance in ohm-m or ohm-cm

• Each soil has its own resistivity ( depending on water content and
concentration of dissolved ion in them)
• Saturated clay----------- low resistivity
• Dry soils (gravel and rock)---------- high resistivity
• Outside electrodes are used to send an electrical current( usually a DC
current with nonpolorising potential electrodes) in to the ground
(50-100milliampere)
• the voltage drop V is measured between the two inside electrodes.
• If the soil profile is homogenous then its electrical resistivity is given by
• ρ = 2 π DV/I
 Electrical resistivity range of different
materials
Formation Electrical resistivity
range Ω
Clay 5 to 30
Wet sand 20 to 150
Sand stone 30 to 300
Lime stone 100 to 800
Dry sand 250 to 4000
Granite 1000 to 20,000
Earth resistivity meter used in situ
Smart electrode (horizontal “cylinder”) connected
to the stainless steel rod (electrode).
Multi-electrode array used in situ
 Unit 1
Module 5
 Penetration or sounding test
• Sounding or probing means pushing or driving a steel pipe or rod in to
the ground to access the resistance to penetration or the depth of
hard stratum.
• Sounding devices are called as penetrometers
• Penetrometers are used to determine the density index of non
cohesive soil and consistency of cohesive soil, which can be obtained
by correlating with penetration resistance.
• These test involve the measurement of resistance to penetration of
a sampling spoon ,cone or other shaped tool under static or dynamic
loading.
• The resistance is empirically correlated with some engineering
properties of soil such as density index, consistency and bearing
capacity.
• These test are useful for general exploration of erratic soil profiles
for finding depth to bed rock, and also provide indication of the
strength and other properties of soil particularly for cohesion less soil
from which it is difficult to obtain undisturbed sample.
 Penetration methods
• 1) standard penetration test
• 2) cone penetration test

• Standard penetration test :---------

• This test is widely used in U.S. It is simple and in
expansive and can be quickly performed .
• It consist of hardened steel split spoon sampler which is
attached to the end of drilling rod and driven in to the
ground.
• This test is performed in a clean hole of 55 to 150 mm diameter with
casing
• It is driven in to the ground with a drop hammer that weigh 65 kg and
falls 75 cm for every hammering( freefall of 75 cm)
• The sampler is first driven through 15 cm as a seating drive, it is further
driven through 30 cm or until 100 blows have been applied .
• The number of blows required to drive the sampler 30 cm beyond the
seating drive is called as penetration resistance N ( No. of blows) .
• Correction for apparent increase in penetration resistance: ------
• When N is grater than ---15
• Ne = 15 + ½(N-15)

• Correction for overburden pressure --------

• Ne = N 50/(1.42 σ+ 10)
• This method does not give us a continuous record with depth but only
observation at those depth where the test is conducted.