Polymers:-

Polymers are compound of very high molecular masses formed by the combination of a large number of simple molecules.
The simple molecules which combine to give polymers are called monomers. The process by which the simple molecule (i.e.
monomers) are converted into polymers is called polymerisation.
Classification of polymers
(1) on the basis on sources:
(i) Natural polymers : The polymers obtained from nature (plants and animals) are called natural polymers. These polymers are
very essential for life. They are .
(a) Starch : It is polymer of glucose and it is food reserve of plant.
(b) Cellulose : It is also a polymer of glucose. It is a chief structural material of the plant.
(c) Proteins : These are polymers of -amino acids, These are building blocks of animal body and constitute an essential part of our
food.
(d) Nucleic acids : These are polymers of nucleotides. For example RNA and DNA.These are also called biopolymers.
(ii) Synthetic polymers : The polymers which are prepared in the laboratories are called synthetic polymers. These are also called
man made polymers. For example polyethene, PVC nylon, teflon, bakelite terylene, synthetic rubber etc.
(iii) Semisynthetic polymers : These polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical modifications.
For example cellulose is naturally occurring polymers, cellulose on acetylation with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric
acid forms cellulose diacetate polymers. It is used in making thread and materials like films glasses etc. Vulcanized rubber is also
an example of semisynthetic polymers used in making tyres etc. gun cotton which is cellulose nitrate used in making explosive.
(2) on based on structure : On the basis of structure of polymers these can be classified as
(i) Linear polymers : These are polymers in which monomeric units are linked together to form linear chain. These linear polymers
are well packed and have high magnitude of intermolecular forces of attraction and therefore have high densities, high tensil (pulling)
strength and high melting points. Some common example of linear polymers are high density polyethylene nylon, polyester, PVC,
PAN etc.

(ii) Branched chain polymers : These are polymers in which the monomers are joined to form long chains with side chains or
branches of different lengths. These branched chain polymers are irregularly packed and therefore, they have low tensile strength,
low density, boiling point and melting points than linear polymers. Some common examples are low density polythene, glycogen,
starch etc. (Amylopectin).

(iii) Cross linked polymers : These are polymers in which monomers unit are cross linked together to form a three dimensional
network polymers. These polymers are hard, rigid and brittle because of network structure e.g., Bakelite, malamine formaldehyde
resin etc.

(3) based upon molecular forces : Depending upon the intermolecular forces, the polymers have been classified into
four type.
(i) Elastomers (ii) Fibres (iii) Thermoplastics (iv) Thermo setting polymers
(i) Elastomers : The polymers that have elastic character like rubber (a material that can return to its original shape after stretching
is said to be elastic) are called elastomers. In elastomers the polymers chains are held together by weak intermolecular forces.
Because of the presence of weak forces, the polymers can be easily stretched about 10 times their normal length but their original
shape when the stress is removed. The most important example of elastomers is synthetic or natural rubber. The elasticity of such
polymer may be further modified by introducing cross linked between the polymer chain.
Vulcanization : The tensile strength , elasticity and resistance to abrasion of natural rubber can be increased by a process called
vulcanization , it consist of heating rubber with 3 - 5% sulphur , during vulcanization, cross linked of sulphur are introduce between
polymeric chains , it was discovered by Charle’s Good year in 1839
(ii) Fibres : These are the polymers which have strong intermolecular forces between the chain. These forces are either hydrogen
bonds or dipole-dipole interaction. Because of strong forces, the chains are closely packed giving them high tensile strength and
less elasticity. Therefore, these polymers have sharp melting points. These polymers are long, thin and thread like and can be woven
in fabric. Therefore, these are used for making fibre
Example : Nylon 66, dacron, silk etc.
(iii) Thermoplastics : The intermolecular forces in these polymers are intermediate between those of elastomers and fibres , the
polymers can be easily moulded into desired shapes heating and subsequent cooling to room temperature . these polymers
soften on heating and become hard on cooling , they are capable of undergoing such reversible changes on heating and cooling
repeatedly .
Example : Polythene, polystyrene, PVC, teflon etc.
(iv) Thermosetting polymers : These are the polymers which undergo permanent change on heating. They become hard and
infusible on heating. They are generally prepared from low molecular mass semi fluid substances. When heated they get highly
cross linked to form hard infusible and insoluble products. The cross links hold the molecule in place so that heating does not allow
them to move freely. Therefore a thermosetting plastic is cross linked and is permanently rigid.
Example : Bakelite, melamine formaldehyde resin etc.
Plasticizers: certain plastic donot soften to workable extent on heating (synthetic resin , cellulose) such plastic can be easily
softened by the addition of some organic compounds which are known as plasticizers , some plasticizers are
(a) triceryl phosphate (b)dimethyl phthalate (c)triphenyl phosphate (d)camphor
Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
Thermoplastic polymers Thermosetting polymers
(1) These soften and melt on heating. These do not soften on heating but rather become hard in case
prolonged heating is done these start burning.
(2) These can be remoulded recast and reshaped. These can not be remoulded or reshaped.
(3) These are less brittle and soluble in some organic These are more brittle and insoluble in organic solvents.
solvents.
(4) These are formed by addition polymerisation. These are formed by condensation polymerisation.
(5) These have usually linear structures. These have three dimensional cross linked structures.
Ex. Polyethylene, PVC, teflon. Ex. Bakelite, urea, formaldehyde, resin.
(4) on based upon mode of preparation : They are of two types on the basis of their synthesis.
(i) Addition polymers (ii) Condensation polymers
(i) Addition polymers : A polymer formed by direct addition of repeated monomers without the elimination of by product molecule
is called addition polymers. Ex. PVC . Polythene
(ii) Condensation polymers : A polymer formed by the condensation of two or more than two monomers with the elimination of
simple molecule like water, ammonia, HCl, alcohol etc. is called condensation polymers.
For example, Nylon -66 , backelite , nylon - 6
Difference between addition and condensation polymers
Addition polymers Condensation polymers
Formed by addition reaction. Formed by condensation process with elimination of small molecules
like H2O.
Molecular mass is a whole number multiple of the Molecular mass is not whole number multiple of the monomer units.
monomer.
Generally involve one monomer unit. Generally involve more than one monomer unit.
Monomers are unsaturated molecules. Monomer units must have two active functional groups.
They are generally chain growth polymers. They are generally step growth polymers.

(5) Classification based upon the nature of monomer : On the basis of nature of monomer. Polymer are of two types
(i) Homopolymers (ii) Copolymers
(i) Homopolymers : A polymer formed from one type of monomers is called homopolymer.
For example,PVC, polythene.
(ii) Copolymers : A polymer formed from two or more different monomers is called copolymer or mixed polymer. For example,
nylon-66 , Dacron ,
Copolymer are commercially more important.

General methods and mechanism of polymerisation

(1) Chain growth or addition polymerisation : It involve a series of reaction each of which consumes a reactive particle and
produces another similar one. The reactive particle may be free radicals or ion (cation or anion) to which monomers get added by a
chain reaction. The polymers thus formed are known as chain growth polymers. Chain growth polymerisation is an important
reaction of alkenes and conjugated dienes or indeed of all kinds of compounds that contain carbon-carbon double bond polythene,
polypropylene, polybutadiene, teflon PVC, polystyrene are some of chain growth polymers. It is based on three mechanism
(i) Free radical mechanism (ii) Cation mechanism (iii) Anion mechanism
Each mechanism of polymerisation reaction involves an initiator of their corresponding nature. The addition polymerisation reaction
is very rapid and is also characterized by three steps i.e. chain initiation, chain propogation and chain termination step.

(i) Free-radical mechanism : Free-radical polymerisation is initiated by organic peroxide or other reagents which decompose to
give free radicals. Following steps are involved.
(a) Chain initiation : Organic peroxides undergo homolytic fission to form free radicals.

2
 O O  O 
|| ||
 ||   
R C O  O C R   R  C  O
heat
  R  CO 2
 
 
Peroxide Unstable

(b) Chain propagation : Free radical adds to an alkene molecule to form a new free radical.
 

R  CH 2  CH 2  R  CH 2 CH 2

The free radical formed attacks another alkene molecule and the process continues in building a long chain.
  
RCH 2 CH 2  CH 2  CH 2  RCH 2 CH 2 CH 2C H 2

(c) Chain termination : The chain reaction comes to halt when two free radical chains combine.

2 R ( CH 2
CH 2
) n CH 2
CH 2
 R ( CH 2
CH 2
) n CH 2
CH 2
: CH 2
CH 2
( CH 2
CH 2
)n R

 Benzoyl or t-Butyl peroxide are common initiators, used.

Free radical polymerisation can also be initiated by a mixture of ferrous sulphate and hydrogen peroxide ( FeSO 4
 H 2O 2 ) .
(ii) Cationic mechanism : Cationic polymerisation is initiated by use of acids such as H 2
SO 4 , HF or BF 3 in H 2
O . The following
steps are involved :
(a) Chain initiation : The acid furnishes proton.
H 2 SO 4 ⇌ H

 HSO

4 HF ⇌ H

 F

BF 3 H 2 O ⇌ H

 BF 3 ( OH )


The proton adds to the carbon of the double bond of the alkene to form a carbonium ion.


H  CH 2  CH 2  CH 3 C H 2

(b) Chain propagation : The carbonium ion combines with another molecule of alkene to form a new carbonium ion and the process
continues to form a long chain.
   
CH 3 CH 2  CH 2  CH 2  CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 CH 2 CH 2C H 2  nCH 2 = CH2  CH 3 CH 2 ( CH 2 CH 2 )n CH 2C H 2

(c) Chain termination : The chain may be halted by combination with negative ion or loss of a proton.

CH 3
CH 2
( CH 2
CH 2 n
) CH  CH 2
 CH 3 CH 2 ( CH 2 CH 2 )n CH  CH 2 H 2 SO 4
| Polymer
H HSO 4

(iii) Anionic polymerisation : This type of polymerisation is initiated by anion (Bases nucleophiles) it proceeds through the
 
formation of carbanion. The initiation may be brought about by K NH 2 of L NH 2 .
The following steps are involved

(a) Chain initiation : Nu  CH 2  CH  Nu  CH 2 CH -

| |
W W
(b) Chain propagation :
 
-  
Nu  CH 2
C H
-
2
 CH 2
 CH  Nu  CH 2
C H  CH 2
C H    Nu   CH
Repeat
2  C H   CH 2 
| | | |
 |

W W W W  W n
   
  -
  
(c) Termination : Nu   CH 2
 C H  CH 2
H  Nu   CH 2
 C H   CH 3
 |
  |

 W n  W n
Polymer

Chain transfer agents : In Vinylic polymerisation various other molecules react with main growing chain to interrupt the
further growth of the original chain. This leads to lowering of average molecular mass of the polymer such reagents are called chain
transfer agents. The common example CCl 4 , CBr 4 etc.
For example in the presence of CCl 4 styrene polymerizes to form a polymer of lower average molecular mass which also
contains some chlorine.
   
CH 2  CH   C H 2 
Initiator
CH  C H 2  C H  Cl  C Cl 3
| | |
C6H 5 C6H 5 C6H 5

 H 
   | 
CH 2  CH  Cl C Cl 3
3C  CH 2  CH    Cl Styrene
3C  CH 2  C H  CH 2  C  
| |
 | |

C6H 5 C6H 5  C6H 5 C 6 H 5 
n

Chain transfer agents determinate chain reaction and inhibit further polymerisation and are also called inhibitors.
(2) Step growth or condensation polymerisation : In this type of polymerisation monomers generally contain two functional groups,

3
i.e., difunctional monomers. In this process no initiator is needed and each step is the same type of chemical reaction. Since in this
polymerisation reaction the polymer is formed in a stepwise manner. It is called step growth polymer and the process is called step
growth polymerisation. The process for two monomer A and B may be expressed as.
A  B  
Condense
 A  B A B  A  
Condense
 A  B  A A B  A  B  A  B  A B
Monomers Dimer Trimer

Alternatively, step growth can proceed as

A B  A B , A B A B  A B  A B or ( A  B )2 , A B  A B  A B  A  B  ( A  B ) n
Polymer

Some common examples of step growth polymers are

Polymers Monomers
Nylon-66 Hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid
Bakelite Phenol and formaldehyde
Dacron (polyester) Terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
Example of polymer :
Rubber : It is a polymer which is capable of returning to its original length, shape or size after being stretched or deformed. It is
the example of elastomer. Rubber are of two types.
(1) Natural rubber (2) Synthetic rubber
(1) Natural rubber or poly isoprene : It is obtained as latex from rubber trees. The latex is coagulated with acetic acid or formic
acid. The coagulated mass is then squeezed.
The cis poly isoprene is the natural rubber , the monomer of natural rubber is isoprene (2-methyl butadiene).
CH 3
 CH 3 
|  | 
nCH 2
 C  CH  CH 2
     CH
Polymerisa tion
2  C  CH  CH 2 
Isopreme  
  n
Natural rubber

CH3 H CH3 H

C=C CH2 CH2 C=C

CH2 C=C CH2

~CH2 CH2~
CH3 H

- cis poly isoprene is known as natural rubber Natural rubber

All cis configuration
-Trans poly isoprene is known as gutta-percha
- The raw natural rubber is a soft gummy and sticky mass and has low elasticity and low tensile strength..
It is insoluble in water, dil. Acids and alkalies but soluble in benzene, chloroform, ether, petrol and carbon disulphide.-
(2) Artificial or Synthetic rubber (neoprene) : This rubber resemble with natural rubber in properties .
its monomer is chloroprene and polymer is neoprene or polyprene.
Cl  Cl 
|

Polymerisa tion
| 
nCH 2  C CH  CH 2      CH 2  C  CH  CH 2 
chloropren e  
  n
poly chloprene Neoprene

- it is superior to natural rubber in its stability to aerial oxidation and is resistance to oil gasoline and other solvents , it is a
thermoplastic polymer .
Uses – in making shoes heels , stopper , belts , pipes for carrying oil and petrol .
(3)poly Styrene / styron / styro foam :
Ph  Ph 
|

peroxide
| 
nCH 2  C H    CH 2  C H 
Styrene  
  n
Polystyren e

Characteristics and use : it is a white thermoplastic material which is transparent and floats on water , it is used for making toys ,
combs , model construction like kits , ceiling tiles , pacKing for delicate articles and lining material for refrigerator’s and cabinets
and TV (boxes)
(4)Buna-S or Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
It is obtained by polymerization of butadiene and styrene in the ratio of 3 : 1 in presence of Na .

4
 Ph  Ph 
|  | 
nCH 2  C H  CH  CH 2  n C H  CH 2  
  CH
Na
2  CH  CH  CH 2  C H  CH 2 
1,3 - Butadiene Styrene
 Buna - S 
  n

In buna – S , Bu stands for butadiene , na for Na , S stands for styrene .

- it has slight less strength than natural rubber .
Uses – automobile tyres , rubber soles , belts , water proof shoes.
(5) Buna-N ( Bu = butadiene , na = Na N = nitrile )
CN  CN 
|
Na  | 
nCH 2  C H  CH  CH 2  nCH 2  C H   CH 2  CH  CH  CH 2  C H  CH 2 
1,3 - Butadiene Acrylonitr ile  Buna - Na 
  n

Uses – Fuel tank , bumpers , crash helmets , telephones, luggage .

(6)Poly acrylonitrile (PAN) or Orlon :
CN  CN 
|  | 
nCH 2  C H 
   CH 2  C H 
Acrylonitr ile  
 
polyAcrylo nitrile n

It is hard , horny and high melting material

Uses – in making blankets and carpets.
(7)Poly vinyl chloride (PVC) :
Cl  Cl 
|  | 
nCH 2  C H
peroxide
  CH 2  C H 
vinyl chloride  

 n

poly vinyl chloride

Characteristics and uses : it is hard horny material , however , it can be made to acquire any degree of flexibility by the addition
of plasticizers , it is resistance to chemical as well as heat , it is used for making rain coats hand bags toys , hose pipes
gramophone , tubes and pipes for electrical fitting, sanitary pipes, floor tiles, insulation for cables, as a substitute for leather.
(8)Polythene : there are two types of polythene .
(i) high density polythene (ii) low density polythene
 
nCH 2  CH 2  CH 2  CH 2 
Ethelene  polyethele ne
 n


S.NO HDPE LDPE

1 T iC l 4  R 3 A l tr a ces O 2
nC H  CH 2    [  C H C H ] nC H  CH 2  
350 570 k , 1000 1500 a tm
[  C H C H ]
2 333 343 K . 6 7 atm 2 2 n 2 2 2 n

2 It consist of linear chain It consist of branched chain

3 High density (o.97 g/cc) Low density (o.92 g/cc)

4 It is transluscent polymer It is transparent polymer

5 It is chemically inert having relatively greater It is also chemically inert with moderate tensile strength and
toughness and high tensile pack well toughness and do not well pack

6 Used in the manufacture of containers , pipes Used as packing materials in the form of thin film or sheet , also
,bottles, toys , bags etc as insulation for electrical wires and cables .
-TiCl4 +R3Al is called Zeigler natta catalyst
(9)Poly tetra fluoroethylene (PTFE)/ teflon :
 
 CF 2  CF 
( NH 4 ) 2 S 2 O 8
nCF 2  CF 2  
 2
  n

5
- it is a very tough material and is resistance towards heat , action of acids or base
- it is bad conductors of electricity .
Uses: non-stick cooking utensils, gaskets, bearings, and insulating fittings and used in making container for concentrated acids
and corrosive liquid.
(10)Thiocol rubber :
 
nCH 2Cl  CH 2Cl  nNa 2 S 2   CH 2 CH 2  S  S 
  n

- It is a synthetic rubber and resistance to oils and abrasion

Uses : a rocket fuel , engine gaskets .

(11)Poly methyl methacylate (PMMA) :

CH 3  CH 3

|  | 
nCH 2  C  COOCH 3   CH 2  C  
 | 
 COOCH 
 3 

- the commercial name of PMMA are Lucite , Plexi glass , Perspex , acrylite ext, it has high optical clarity even better than glass
-It has high optical clarity even better than glass.
Uses : in making lenses , air craft window , protective coating plastic jewellery , in dentures (artificial teeth )
(12) Poly ethylacrylate (PEA) :
 COOC 2
H 
5
 | 
nCH 2  CH  COOC 2H 5    CH 2  C  
 
 
 n

Tough and rubbery polymer .

Uses: similar to PMMA

Polyesters:
(13) Terylene or Dacron or mylar :
O O O O
|| || || ||
n HOCH  CH 2 OH   O  CH 2  CH 2O
Ethelene
2
glycol
nHO – C C – OH –C C–
n
Terephthalic acid

- Terylene is the british name of decron , it has low moisture content and is not damaged by pests like moth and mild , therefore , it
is used for a manufacture of wash and wear cloths, it is also blended with cotton and wool to increases its resistance to wear and
tear , it used in the heart by pass surgical operations and for packing frozen food .
(14) Glyptal or alkyd resin:

O O
COOH || ||
n HOCH  CH 2 OH   O  CH 2  CH 2O
2
Ethelene glycol
–C C–
n
Phthalic acid
COOH

Uses : adherant Paints and lacquers and building material like asbestos and cement .
Polyamides :
(15 )Nylon- 66 :

6
 O O

[ N H –( C H 2 ) 6 –N H –C –( C H 2 ) 4 –C ]n
n NH 2
CH 
2  6 NH 2  n HOOC  CH 2 4 COOH  N y l o n –6 6
Hexamethel ene diam min e Adipic acid

Uses : for making bristles for brushes, Textile fabrics, etc. moulded objects such as gears and bearings , elastic hosiery in the form
of crinkled nylon
(16 ) Nylon- 6 or Perlon-L : it is obtained from the monomer caprolactum
H
|
N O O
n Heat
 ||
– N H – ( C H 2) 5 – C – n

Uses : for the manufacture tyre cords, fabrics , Mountaineering ropes,

Phenol formaldehyde resin or Bakelite:
When excess of formaldehyde is heated with phenol in presence of an alkali , a three dimensional polymer is formed , known as
Bakelite (Bakeland scientist prepared in 1910)
Phenol + HCHO  BAKELITE
Uses: (i) With low degree polymerisation as bindings glue for wood varnishes, lacquers.
(ii) With high degree polymerisation for combs, for mica table tops ( laminated table ) , fountain pen , barrels electrical goods
(switches and plugs) , gramophone records
NOVOLAC:
When excess of formaldehyde is heated with phenol in presence of an acid , to give a linear polymer which is known as novolac
Phenol + HCHO  NOVOLAC
Uses: In paints
Structure :

Melamine formaldehyde resin: Melamine and formaldehyde copolymerize to give melamine formaldehyde resin

Uses : for making plastic crockery , cups and plates made from this resin do not break on being dropped ,
so it is commonly known as non-breakable crockery
Biodegradable polymers:
These are the polymers which are degraded by micro-organisms within a suitable period so that biodegradable polymers and their
degraded products do not cause any serious affects on the environment.
In biological systems, biopolymers degrade mainly by enzymatic hydrolysis and to some extent by oxidation. Therefore, in view of
the disposal problems of polymer waste and for developing polymers for other safe uses in human systems, attempts have been
made to develop biodegradable synthetic polymers. These synthetic polymers mostly have functional groups which are normally

7
present in biopolymers and lipids.
Among these aliphatic polyesters are one important class of biodegradable polymers which are commercially potential biomaterials.
The common examples of biodegradable polymers are polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), polyhydroxy butyrate –co--hydroxy valerate
(PHBV), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polylactic acid (PLA), poly (-caprolactone) (PCL), etc.
Uses : Biodegradable polymers are used mainly for medical goods such as surgical sutures, tissue in growth materials or for
controlled drug release devices, plasma substitutes etc. The decomposition reactions usually involve hydrolysis (either
enzymatically induced or by non-enzymatic mechanisms) to non-toxic small molecules which can be metabolized by or excreted
from the body. These are also finding use in agriculture materials (such as films, seed coatings), fast food wrappers, personal
hygiene products, etc.
Molecular masses of polymers
A polymer sample contains chain of varying lengths and therefore its molecular mass is always expressed as an average on the
other hand natural polymer such as proteins contain chain of identical length and therefore they have definite molecular mass.
The molecular mass of a polymer can be expressed in two ways.
(1) Number average molecular mass (M N ) (2) Weight average molecular mass (M W ) .

(1) Number average molecular mass (M N ) : If N 1, N 2, N 3 ….. are the number of molecules with molecular masses M 1, M 2
,M 3 ……
respectively, then the number average molecular mass is
N 1M  N M  N 3M  ...
M N  1 2 2 3

N 1  N 2  N 3 ...

 N iM
This may be expressed as : M N  i

Ni

Where N i is the number of molecules of the ith type with molecular mass M i .

(2) Weight average molecular mass (M W ) : If m1, m 2 , m 3 …. are the masses of species with molecular masses M 1, M 2, M 3 …..
respectively, then the weight average molecular mass is
m1M m2M 2 m3M .... miM
M W  1 3
or  i

m1  m 2  m 3  ... mi

 N i M i2
But mi  N iM i , so that M W 
 N iM i

where N i is the number of molecules of mass M i .

Polydispersity index : The ratio of weight average molecular mass to the number average molecular mass is called
polydispersity index, PDI.
M
PDI  W

M n

This gives an idea about the homogeneity of a polymer.

(i) The polymers whose molecules have nearly same molecular masses are called monodisperse polymers.
For these molecules, M W  M N and therefore, PDI is one.
(ii) The polymers whose molecules have wide range of molecular masses are called polydisperse polymers. For these polymers,
M W  M N and therefore, their PDI is greater than one.
Thus, it may be concluded that in general, natural polymers are more homogeneous than synthetic polymers.
For natural polymers, PDI is usually unity and therefore, natural polymers are monodisperse.
For synthetic polymers, the PDI is greater than one
Polyurethanes : Polyurethanes are polymers obtained by the polymerisation of a urethane.
It is used for heat and sound insulation in the form of polyurethane foam. Mattresses, cushions and pillows made out of
polyurethane foam are washable and long lasting.
H
|

R  N  C OR
||
O
A urethane

Epoxy resins : These are obtained by copolymerisation of epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A. These resins have good adhesive
strength. These are used for making adhesives (Araldite, M-seal etc.) for making glass reinforced plastic (fibre glass), for
lamination, to impart crease resistance and shrinkage control to cotton, rayon and for making anti-skid surface for highways.
Polycarbonates : These are obtained by copolymerisation of diphenyl carbonate and bisphenol-A. It has very high optical

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transparency, high impact strength over wide range of temperature. It is used for making bullet-proof glass, baby-feed bottles,
fridge containers, mixi jars etc.
(8) Thermoplastics are also called cold setting polymers. They are moulded when hot but set into the required shape only on cooling.
Thermosetting polymers are also called heat setting polymers. Such polymers are supplied in the partially polymerised form.
(9) On long exposure to air and sun-light thermo-plastics becomes brittle. It is due to the evaporation of plasticizer with time. The
faint smell associated with various thermoplastics is due to slow evaporation of this plasticizer.
(10) High density polyethene is a linear polymer. Carry bags made out of it are not so soft and make a crackling sound when crushed
in hands. You can easily tear them in one direction, but not at right angle to it. Plastic twine is made out of such a polymer. They
have very high tensile strength in one direction (along the polymer chain) and a low tensile strength at right angle to it. Such carry
bags are used to carry clothes, note-books etc. Carry bags made of low density polyethene are soft, make no noise when crushed
with hands, have same tensile strength in all directions. Such carry bags are used to carry heavy objects (vegetables, fruits etc.)

Saran : it is a copolymer of CH2=CH-Cl and CH2=CCl2 , it is used to make film for wrapping food
Super glue : it is a polymer of methyle cynoacrylate , it is very high tensile strength , one drop of it can support a weight 2000 lbs ( 907.18
kg)
Kevlar: it is a polyamide nylon-polymer and is obtained by condensation co-polymerization of terephthalic acid with 1, 4-
diaminobenzene (p-phenylenediamine). The fibres of this polymer are so strong that they are used to make light weight bullet-proof
jackets .
Lexan: it is a polycarbonate(polyester) and is prepared by condensation copolymerization of diethyl carbonate and biphenol A. It
has unusually high impact strength and hence is used in making bullet-proof windows and safety or crash helmets.
Nomex: it is a polyamide and obtained by condensation of m-phthalic acid and m-diaminobenzene. It is known for its fire-
resistant properties and is used in protective clothing for firefighters , astronauts and race car drivers.
Ebonite : it is highly vulcanised sulphur (20-30 %) rubber and is obtained by vulcanization of natural rubber.
Rayon : it was originally called artificial silk but now the name rayon is given to all fibres obtained by chemical treatment of
cellulose. Thus, artificial silk is polysaccharide, i.e., cellulose derivative.
- cellulose is bio polymer of  -D- glucose
- starch is bio polymer of  -D- glucose
- protein is bio polymer of amino acids
- nucleic acid is a polymer of nucleotide
- rayon ( artificial silk ) is polymer of  -D- glucose
- Natural silk is polyamide