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i
Choral Artistry
ii
Kodály Today Handbook Series
Micheál Houlahan and Philip Tacka

Kodály Today: A Cognitive Approach to Elementary Music Education, Second Edition
Kodály in the Kindergarten Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the 21st Century
Kodály in the First Grade Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the 21st Century
Kodály in the Second Grade Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the 21st Century
Kodály in the Third Grade Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the 21st Century
Kodály in the Fourth Grade Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the 21st Century
Kodály in the Fifth Grade Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the 21st Century
Choral Artistry: A Kodály Perspective for Middle School to College-Level Choirs, Volume 1
Choral Sight-Reading: A Kodály Perspective for Middle School to College-Level Choirs, Volume 2
iii
Choral Artistry
A Kodály Perspective for
Middle School to College-Level Choirs
Volume 1
Micheál Houlahan & Philip Tacka

iv
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers

the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
© Oxford University Press 2023
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Houlahan, Micheál, author. | Tacka, Philip, author.
Title: Choral Artistry : a kodály perspective for middle school to college-level choirs /
Micheál Houlahan & Philip Tacka.
Description: New York: Oxford University Press, 2023. |
Series: Kodaly today handbook series | Includes index. |
Contents: Volume 1. Framing a Choral Curriculum Based on the Kodály Approach—Getting Started:
What to Teach During the First Few Weeks of a Choral—Laying the Foundations of Choral Singing
Using Folk songs and Folk Song Arrangements—Developing Part-work Skills in the Choral Rehearsal
for Beginner—Sound Ways to Develop Audiation, Reading, and Music Theory Skills in the
Choral Rehearsal—Music Theory and Sight Reading Sequence for Level 1 Choirs—Music Theory
and Sight Reading Sequence for Level 2 Choirs—Music Theory and Sight Reading Sequence for
Level 3 Choirs—An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-reading in the Choral Rehearsal—How We
Learn Impacts How We Teach: Creating an Effective Teaching—Putting It All Together:
Choral Strategies and Rehearsal Plans—Evaluation and Assessment in the Choral Rehearsal.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021034537 (print) | LCCN 2021034538 (ebook) | ISBN 9780197550496 (v. 1; paperback) |
ISBN 9780197550489 (v. 1; hardback) | ISBN 9780197550540 (v. 2; paperback) |
ISBN 9780197550533 (v. 2; hardback) | ISBN 9780197550519 (v. 1; epub) | ISBN 9780197550526 |
ISBN 9780197550564 (v. 2 ; epub) | ISBN 9780197550571
Subjects: LCSH: Choral singing—Instruction and study. | Kodály, Zoltán, 1882–1967.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197550489.001.0001
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America

Paperback printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
v
[ . . . ] eratque tam turpe Musicam nescire quam litteras [from De Musica, by

Isidoris Hispalensis]
“Legyen A Zene Mindenkié” [Music should belong to everyone]
Zoltán Kodály
vi
vii
vii
Contents
Acknowledgments • ix
Introduction • xi
1 Framing a Choral Curriculum Based on the Kodály Philosophy • 1
2 Getting Started: Launching the Academic Year for Beginning, Intermediate, and
Advanced Choirs • 19
3 Laying the Foundation of Choral Singing Through Folk Songs and Folk Song
Arrangements • 64
4 Sequencing Part-Work Skills in the Choral Rehearsal for Beginner (Level 1),
Intermediate (Level 2), and Advanced (Level 3) Choirs • 82
5 Sound Ways to Develop Music Theory Skills Through Audiation in the Choral
Rehearsal • 117
6 Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for Level 1 Choirs • 138
9 An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-Reading in the Choral Rehearsal • 284
10 Scaffolding a Teaching Strategy for Choral Music • 311
11 Putting It All Together: Choral Strategies and Rehearsal Plans • 332
12 Evaluation and Assessment in the Choral Rehearsal • 378
Notes • 397
Bibliography • 405
Index • 421
viii
ix
ix
Acknowledgments
We owe a debt of gratitude to the many individuals who inspired, encouraged, and helped
us along the way. We were fortunate enough to study at the Franz Liszt Academy/Kodály
Pedagogical Institute in Hungary with world-renowned Kodály experts, many of whom
were the composer’s pupils and colleagues, who shared their knowledge with us over the
course of many years. Among them were Erzsébet Hegyi, Ildikó Herboly-Kocsár, Katalin
Komlós, Lilla Gábor, Katalin Forrai, Mihály Ittzés, Klára Kokas, Klára Nemes, Eva Vendrai,
Helga Szabó, Laszlo Eősze, Peter Erdei, and Katalin Kiss. Our research is grounded in
their many valuable insights and research.
Many of our students in Kodály certification programs have helped us shape the ap-
proach to instruction and learning presented herein. Our three decades of working to-
gether have contributed to the information we present and serve as a continuing source
of inspiration in working with the pedagogical processes we have shaped. Special thanks
are due to our students in graduate Kodály choral programs for critically reading portions
of the manuscript, field-testing choral plans, and making insightful suggestions regarding
this approach to choral pedagogy.
Special acknowledgment must be made to Patty Moreno, director of the Kodály
Certification Program, San Marcos, Texas and director of Fine Arts for the Hays
Consolidated School District for her support and continued encouragement of this pro-
ject. Esther Hargittai, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and faculty at the Ferenc
Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest, Hungary, for her careful reading of the initial man-
uscript and her helpful suggestions regarding both form and pedagogy. We also thank
Melinda Stanton and Jamie Barnett for their comments, which helped us bring this book
to completion.
Richard Schellhas deserves special thanks for his patience, understanding, and words
of encouragement and advice throughout this manuscript’s writing.
We wish to thank Norm Hirschy, Executive Editor, Sean Decker, Editorial Assistant,
Suzanne Ryan, former editor-in-chief for humanities and executive editor of music at
Oxford University Press, for their encouragement and critical guidance. We thank Cheryl
Merritt, project manager who oversaw editing and production. Thanks to our editor, Jane
Zanichkowsky for her impeccable scrutiny and thoughtful editorial assistance with our
manuscript.
x
xi
xi
Introduction
There is a consensus in the field of twenty-first-century choral music education that it

should reflect global changes in culture and society and pay attention to the repertoire
and learning styles from both the “sound” and the “symbol” choral singing traditions. We
need to consider creating choral music curricula that will “define an educational agenda
which will synthesize indigenous culture and traditional aurality with the literary and sci-
entific resources of modern formal education.”1 The Kodály perspective provides this type
of curriculum because it synthesizes and integrates the learning processes of “sound”
musicians, who stress learning music aurally, and “symbol” musicians, who emphasize
learning music from a score. This organic approach to teachings prioritizes the role of
“sound thinking” in the development of performance and musicianship skills of choral
singers. As David J. Hargreaves states, “The intuitive experience and enjoyment of music
should come first, such that the later acquisition of formal musical skills occurs induc-
tively. . . . A good deal of traditional music education has worked deductively: the formal
rules have been taught in the abstract, for example, through verbal description or written
notation, rather than in the practical context of making the sounds themselves.”2 Some
research suggests that this “subject-logic” approach often leads to a superficial develop-
ment of choral singing, as well as aural and sight-reading skills.3
An examination of choral pedagogy books reveals that, in general, they contain
the same pedagogical material, regardless of when they were written.4 “A survey of
conducting textbooks,” writes Frank Abrahams, “confirms that little has changed in the
ways that conductors learn their craft.”5 Many of these publications address various topics
relating to the choral rehearsal from historical and theoretical perspectives. Common
topics include vocal warm-ups, choral blending, rehearsal strategies, audition procedures,
working with different choirs, working with male or female voices, working with groups
of varying ages, changing voices, issues relevant to church music settings, and admin-
istrative organization. Information is also provided about performance practice, the
characteristics of the historical style periods, analyzing a score, and useful pointers for
developing more expressive conducting motions. Several publications include extensive
repertoire lists, some arranged by voice range. It does not appear that research from the
fields of choral pedagogy, music theory, music perception, and cognition is reflected in
current choral pedagogy textbooks. Demorest and Abrahams’s publications appear to be
the exceptions.6 None of the available books discuss using the Kodály perspective in the
choral rehearsal to teach musicianship skills and music literature in middle school, high
school, and college-level choirs. Houlahan and Tacka discussed using the Kodály approach
with elementary choirs in Kodály Today.7 In his doctoral dissertation, Sumner makes a
case for relative solmization within the Kodály context and its application in secondary
school music education.8 Nemes provides a historical perspective on the importance of
choral singing within the framework of the Kodály approach.9 Xiques’s book Solfège and
Choral Artistry. Micheál Houlahan and Philip Tacka, Oxford University Press. © Oxford University Press 2023.
DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197550489.001.0001
xii
Introduction
Sonority: Teaching Music Reading in the Choral Classroom provides guidance on teaching
xii warm-ups and sight-reading skills derived from choral literature according to the Kodály
philosophy. The suggested sight-reading sequence emphasizes a traditional Kodály orien-
tation to learning rhythm and diatonic major solfège syllables.10
Focus discussions and surveys conducted with choral directors reveal their concerns
regarding the lack of specificity in choral pedagogy books relating to teaching repertoire
alongside music theory, part-work, and sight-reading skills. Many choral directors strive
to develop a more holistic approach to teaching choral music, moving beyond activities
and toward developmental skill building. They are looking for more guidance on how to
• use the Kodály perspective to create a choral music curriculum,
• teach choral repertoire from all style periods, including global folk music and
contemporary and commercial music using a more holistic approach to teaching,
• select repertoire for choirs that can support students’ knowledge of music theory,
sight-reading, and part-work skills,
• create vertical alignment between elementary, middle school, high school, and
college-level choral programs,
• build student’s audiation skills to improve choral singing and sight-reading skills,
• teach music theory using rhythm syllables, counting with numbers, and singing
with solfège syllables, letter names, and scale degree numbers without confusing
students,
• incorporate sight-reading into the choral rehearsal so that students can learn and
perform more repertoire, and
• develop a choral rehearsal plan that, in addition to teaching repertoire, allows for
the sequential development of music theory, sight-reading, and improvisation skills.
We address the above topics from a Kodály perspective in this publication. The philosophy and
teaching processes align with the content in Kodály Today, From Sound to Symbol: Fundamentals
of Music, and national standards in music that promote twenty-first-century music learning.11
There are excellent choral pedagogy books that offer in-depth insights into traditional choral
pedagogy. We do not address these topics in this book except to help clarify some aspects of
the Kodály approach to the choral singing. (In Chapter 2 we include information about re-
cruitment, auditioning, and classroom management). Our book is a detailed guide to helping
choral directors at all levels improve the choral singing and the musicianship of their students
according to the Kodály philosophy. We delineate teaching procedures and demonstrate their
specific application within the choral rehearsal in considerable detail. Choral directors should
use these ideas as a point of departure for their creativity and apply these suggestions in a way
that is responsive to their students’ needs, backgrounds, and interests. We expect that choral
directors will combine these ideas with their local, state, regional, and national benchmarks
for teaching.
Chapter Summaries
Chapter 1: Framing a Choral Curriculum Based on
the Kodály Philosophy
This chapter provides an overview of the Kodály approach as it applies to the choral
rehearsal. It defines musicianship using the concept of “multiple dimensions of musi-
cianship” defined in Kodály Today and the Kodály in the Classroom series. The multiple
xiii
Introduction
dimensions of musicianship, in combination with the Kodály concept, provide the foun-
dation for developing a music curriculum for choirs. We provide several model choral xiii
curriculum templates and choral rehearsal plans.
Keywords: performance goals, sight-reading goals, audiation, inner hearing, choral
curriculum, multidimensional musicianship
Chapter 2: Launching the Academic Year for Beginning,

Intermediate, and Advanced Choirs
Here we provide ideas, procedures, and techniques for laying the foundations of choral
singing during the first few weeks of choral rehearsals for middle school (Level 1), high
school (Level 2), and college-level (Level 3) choirs. We focus on the aspects that best pro-
mote and maintain the choral music curriculum learning objectives outlined in Chapter 1.
This chapter defines two models for teaching folk songs and canons: Performance Through
Sound Analysis (PTSA) and Performance Through Sound Analysis and Notation (PTSAN).
We provide several choral rehearsal templates and choral plans.
Keywords: auditions, classroom management technique, choral plans
Chapter 3: Laying the Foundations of Choral Singing Through

Folk Songs and Folk Song Arrangements
This chapter aims to demonstrate how singing folk repertoires can strengthen the various
dimensions of choral singers’ musicianship. Students entering a choral program often al-
ready know a selection of folk songs. The choral director can use this repertoire to develop
vocal production, part-work, music literacy, improvisation, composition, and arranging
and listening skills. (In Chapter 11 we demonstrate how to use folk songs to teach choral
repertoire by Béla Bartók, Eric Whitacre, and John Tavener.) The chapter ends with an
overview of Kodaly’s choral legacy—two-and three-part repertoire composed by Kodály
based on folk stylistic elements, classical art music, and Kodály’s unaccompanied choral
compositions. This repertoire can be used to develop sight-reading, part-hearing, and
part-singing skills and as an introduction to choral repertoire.
Keywords: choral folk songs, folk song arrangements, Kodály Choral Library
Chapter 4: Sequencing Part-Work Skills in the Choral

Rehearsal for Beginner (Level 1), Intermediate (Level 2), and
Advanced Choirs (Level 3)
This chapter provides ideas for building better listening skills via the progressive devel-
opment of part-hearing and part-singing. Part-singing is the ability to sing multipart
music; part-hearing is the ability to hear other voice parts while singing your part. Both
are acquired skills. We devote time to helping students build their part-hearing and part-
singing in both homophonic and polyphonic music. We apply the Performance Through
Sound Analysis (PTSA) and Performance Through Sound Analysis and Notation (PTSAN)
models to learning two-part folk song arrangements. The ultimate goal is to provide ideas
that build students’ voices and ears simultaneously by concentrating on intonation and
inner hearing. The chapter ends with a summary of the most important stylistic charac-
teristics for the major compositional periods.
Keywords: part-work skills, style characteristics
xiv
Introduction
Chapter 5: Sound Ways to Develop Music Theory Skills Through

xiv Audiation in the Choral Rehearsal
This chapter is an overview of the pedagogical tools that foster the development of
audiation, notation, reading, and music theory skills in the choral rehearsal taught from
a Kodály perspective.12 Choral directors often adopt specific teaching tools based on their
own educational experiences. They may not, therefore, recognize the benefits of adopting
pedagogical tools because they do not fully understand how to incorporate them into
the choral rehearsal. Audiation and music literacy skills are essential dimensions of what
it means to be a musician. The way we teach these skills can significantly enhance an
ensemble’s sound and ability to learn how to sight-read.
Keywords: rhythmic tools, takadimi rhythm syllables, solfège syllables, hand signs,
performance to notation, sound to symbol
Chapter 6: Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for

Level 1 Choirs
This chapter aims to delineate a pedagogy that develops students’ ability to think in
sound. This ability directly impacts students’ part-hearing and part-singing skills as well
as their ability to sight-read music confidently. We offer a process to teach music theory
using the Houlahan and Tacka Sound to Symbol model for beginning choirs. Students
first actively explore music’s sounds before being introduced to music symbols and music
theory knowledge in this practical approach. This specific pedagogy enables students to
enhance their audiation or inner hearing and listening skills and part-work skills and
then apply these skills to sight-reading. Students learn how to listen to and internalize
music, describe music with rhythm or solfège syllables without reference to notation, no-
tate music, and finally, apply their knowledge of music to sight-singing, performing on
a keyboard, composing, and improvising music. We have provided two levels for use in
the middle school: Level 1A for use with sixth-grade or first-year participants, and Level
1B for seventh and eighth grade. The seventeen units in Level 1A begin with introducing
phrase and form and continue through the notes of the major diatonic scale. The twenty-
five units in Level 1B begin with a review of Level IA concepts but include the more inten-
sive practice of intervals and reading in different key signatures. Level 1B also includes an
introduction to diatonic minor tonalities and beginning harmony.
Keywords: sight-reading, music theory sequence, middle school choirs, takadimi
rhythm syllables, solfège syllables, performance to notation, sound to symbol
Chapter 7: Music Theory and Sight-Reading for Level 2 Choirs

This chapter aims to continue developing the students’ ability to think in sound and
learn more advanced rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic elements. The Level 2A theory se-
quence is intended for high school and college-level non-auditioned choirs, and Level 2B
for auditioned high school and auditioned collegiate groups.
Keywords: sight-reading, music theory sequence, high school choirs, takadimi rhythm
syllables, solfège syllables, performance to notation, sound to symbol
xv
Introduction
Chapter 8: Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for

Level 3 Choirs xv
This chapter adds to students’ ability to think in sound and learn more advanced rhythmic
and melodic elements and harmonic chord progressions presented within the context
of stylistic periods. The music theory sequence is intended for varsity-level high school
ensembles and auditioned collegiate groups. The chapter contains teaching strategies
for advanced rhythmic and melodic concepts and elements and a section on teaching
twentieth-and twenty-first-century repertoire. The final section addresses harmonic
skills by means of singing and harmonic repertoire analysis, particularly canons and
chord progressions. The goal is to help choral students become more aware of harmonic
elements to improve their intonation and develop more advanced part-work skills.
Keywords: sight-reading, music theory sequence, high school choirs, college-level
choirs, takadimi rhythm syllables, solfège syllables, performance to notation, sound
to symbol
Chapter 9: An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-Reading

in the Choral Rehearsal
The goals of this chapter are to identify the skills necessary to support effective sight-
reading and to provide an overview of ways to develop these skills during the choral re-
hearsal. Finding ways to develop the ability to sight-read should be one of the choral
director’s primary goals. We are convinced that teaching sight-reading should be an or-
ganic process. It is also multi-dimensional; it needs to be approached sequentially and
thoughtfully.
Keywords: musical form, in-tune singing, improvisation, composition, arranging,
audiation
Chapter 10: Scaffolding a Teaching Strategy for Choral Music

This chapter provides guidelines for analyzing, learning and memorizing, conducting,
and teaching a score. We provide specific preparation and presentation, and practice ac-
tivities for teaching a score to a choir. Included is a discussion of incorporating more
strategies using the Performance Through Sound Analysis and Notation (PTSAN) model.
The chapter concludes with an expanded choral rehearsal plan that integrates the prepa-
ration, presentation, and practice activities for learning a new score.
Keywords: conductor’s guide, choral rehearsal plan
Chapter 11: Putting It All Together: Choral Strategies and

Rehearsal Plans
Here we present strategies for teaching specific repertoire ranging from a medieval canon
to the music of Béla Bartók, John Tavener, and Eric Whitacre. Each strategy includes
preparation activities, taught during the vocal warm-up and the performance and music
theory sections of the rehearsal; presentation activities using the Performance Through
xvi
Introduction
Sound Analysis (PTSA) and Performance Through Sound Analysis and Notation (PTSAN)
xvi models of learning, taught during the section of rehearsal devoted to learning choral
repertoire; and practice activities, taught during the part of the rehearsal for practicing
octavo repertoire. The chapter concludes with a guide to long-and short-term planning.
Keywords: choral strategies, rehearsal plans
Chapter 12: Evaluation and Assessment in the Choral Rehearsal

This chapter provides rubrics for evaluating choral directors in terms of planning and
teaching. We also offer rubrics for assessing student achievement in the choral rehearsal,
including sight-reading.
Keywords: sight- reading assessment, sight- reading rubrics, choral director
assessment
Outstanding Features
Research-Based and Field-Tested
We are fortunate to work with choral directors who have field-tested the materials and
teaching sequences in this book. We have combined these ideas with current research
findings in music perception and cognition to develop a model for music instruction and
learning that will promote students’ musical understandings and metacognition skills.
We have worked to present a clear picture of how one develops a choral music curric-
ulum based on the philosophy of Kodály, as well as the teaching and learning processes
required to execute this curriculum.
Practical Choral Curriculum and Choral Rehearsal Plan

This guide provides choral directors with practical approach to both a choral curriculum
and choral rehearsal plans that translates into a comprehensive choral curriculum frame-
work. Understanding the connections between performance, repertoire, music theory,
sight-
reading, improvisation, and musicological knowledge about choral repertoire
provides the structural foundations for creating a music curriculum and choral rehearsal
plans for beginning as well as advanced choral singers.
Teaching the Skill of In-tune Singing with Solfège Syllables

We include exercises that develop singing, audiation, and part-hearing skills presented in
sequential order. We demonstrate how to teach the basic melodic and rhythmic building
blocks of music using a “sound to symbol” orientation to the music that develops more
confident readers and sight-singers.
Sequential Development of Part-Work Skills

Part-hearing is the ability to hear and audiate another voice part or parts while singing
your own part. Part-singing is the ability to sing multi-part music. There are few, if any,
resources that specifically teach part-hearing and part-singing in the rehearsal, connected
xvii
Introduction
to the repertoire; choral conductors often view these as innate talents. Our text provides
a systematic approach to the development of both skills. (See Chapter 4.) xvii
Teaching Music Theory Via Performance Through Sound Analysis

and Notation to Enhance Audiation: Sound and Symbol
We believe that music theory must be taught via the analysis and performance of rep-
ertoire. We use the Houlahan and Tacka Sound to Symbol model for teaching music
theory concepts in the context of the choral rehearsal. Integrated into this model are
suggestions for teaching musical elements through performance that develop audiation
skills, knowledge of rhythm, knowledge of solfège syllables, and associated music theory
concepts.
Culturally Appropriate Models for Teaching Choral Repertoire

We use two approaches to teaching choral music: Performance Through Sound Analysis
Pedagogy (PTSA) and Performance Through Sound Analysis and Notation (PTSAN). We
use the PTSA model to teach “sound repertoires” such as global folk music and com-
mercial music. We use the PTSAN model to teach “symbol repertoires” such as folk
music belonging to the students’ culture, classical music, and recently composed works.
Throughout the book we discuss these two approaches in detail and how they are used for
teaching literature and developing improvisation skills.
Teaching Repertoire from Medieval Music to Twenty-First-

Century Choral Literature
This Oxford Guide provides choral directors with a template for teaching repertoire from
the medieval era to the present. Each chapter in the book delineates the many skills that
students need to develop and provides the pedagogical techniques to help them do so.
Chapter 11 offers several practical templates for teaching various music styles, building
on the skills and techniques presented in Chapters 1–10.
Practical Choral Rehearsal Plans

This publication includes two central choral plans: Choral Rehearsal Plan 1 for the first
few weeks of choral rehearsals and Choral Rehearsal Plan 2 for teaching choral repertoire.
Choral Rehearsal Plan 1 provides ensemble directors with a template for teaching basic
or advancing music theory concepts, developing students’ voices, and developing tuneful
singing at the start of the term. Choral Rehearsal Plan 2 offers a plan for teaching vocal
warm-ups, music theory through performance, repertoire, improvisation, composition,
arranging, and sight-reading.
An Accompanying Sight-Reading Book

Sight-Reading in the Choral Rehearsal: A Kodály Perspective for Middle School to College
includes basic and advanced music theory concepts for developing fluent sight-reading
xvii
Introduction
skills for standard choral repertoire. This publication provides the music and follows the
xviii process outlined in Chapters 6-8 of Volume one for teaching music theory concepts
Organic Pedagogy
This guide provides choral directors with a curriculum and rehearsal models that place
performance, audiation, part-work, music theory, and sight-singing skills at the heart of
the choral experience. Our “sound thinking” approach to teaching results in greater effi-
ciency in creating independent choral singers and performing a more varied repertoire.
Vertical Alignment
The pedagogy used in this book offers a compelling example of how to achieve ver-
tical alignment between the elementary, middle school, high school, and college choral
programs. The approach we delineate develops routines and procedures common to
choral rehearsals regardless of level and teaching philosophy.
Writing Style
The writing style is accessible; it is clear and descriptive. We provide many examples and
activities that translate theoretical learning and an instruction model into a practical
handbook for teaching choral music.
Who Should Read This book?

Choral Artistry is designed primarily for middle school, high school, and college choral
directors, as well as undergraduate and graduate music education and conducting
students. This book should also be of interest to college professors who conduct choirs
and teach undergraduate or graduate choral pedagogy courses. Other interested readers
include elementary music choral directors who teach honors choirs.
Using Choral Artistry

The following are some of the ways to use this publication
Applying the Kodály Concept in the Choral Rehearsal

Read this book to understand how the Kodály approach can impact the development of a
choral program. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the Kodaly concept and a framework
for a choral curriculum. Chapters 10 and 11 apply the Kodály perspective to teaching
approaches for choral repertoire and a rehearsal plan to implement the choral strategy.
Integrating of Folk Songs in the Choral Rehearsal

Chapter 3 addresses the use of folk songs as a foundation for teaching music theory
concepts and elements. In Chapters 10 and 11 we demonstrate how to use simple folk
songs to prepare choral repertoire ranging from the medieval era to contemporary music.
xix
Introduction
Chapters 2 and 3 demonstrate how folk songs can be used for teaching part-work skills
and basic “sound” music theory skills during the first few weeks of choral rehearsals. xix
Teaching Music Theory and Sight-Reading

Chapter 5 presents an overview of music tools used to develop sight-reading skills.
Chapters 6, 7, and 8 discuss teaching music theory and sight-reading skills by mean of
performance for beginning, intermediate, and advanced choirs. Chapter 9 presents an
organic approach to teaching sight-reading.
Teaching Part-work Skills

Chapter 4 offers techniques and a teaching progression for developing part-work, part-
hearing, and part-singing strategies. We also include a discussion of how an under-
standing of stylistic elements impacts the development of part-work skills.
Selecting and Teaching Choral Repertoire Using Performance

Through Sound Analysis (PTSA) and Performance Through Sound
Analysis and Notation (PTSAN)
Students who learn repertoire using PTSA and PTSAN models are more engaged in the
learning process and enjoy performing this repertoire. The sight-reading and music
theory approaches given in Chapters 6–8 are grounded in using the PTSAN approach and
can be used to select and learn repertoire. For these approaches, review Chapters 2, 4, and
10. Chapters 10 and 11 provide more detail on adapting and using these approaches to
teach more advanced repertoire.
Author Background
Micheál Houlahan is a professor of music theory and aural skills and chair of the Tell
School of Music, Millersville University of Pennsylvania, and is a visiting professor of
music at the China Conservatory of Music, Beijing. He was awarded an Irish Arts Council
Scholarship for graduate studies in Hungary and a Fulbright Scholarship for doctoral
studies at the Catholic University of America. His research has been supported by an
international research exchange grant awarded by the National Endowment for the
Humanities. He holds a PhD in music theory with a minor in Kodály studies from the
Catholic University of America, a Kodály Diploma from the Kodály Pedagogical Institute
of the Liszt Academy of Music in Hungary and from the Kodály Center of America, and
fellowships in piano performance from Trinity College and London College of Music,
London. He has lectured extensively on music theory, music perception and cognition
and Kodály studies in China, Ireland, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Estonia, The
Netherlands, and England. He currently serves as a visiting evaluator and team leader
as well as a member of the Commission on Accreditation for the National Association of
Schools of Music.
Philip Tacka received his doctorate from the Catholic University of America and
completed postdoctoral work at the Kodály Pedagogical Institute of the Liszt Academy in
Hungary. He is a professor of music in The Tell School of Music at Millersville University
xx
Introduction
of Pennsylvania. His research interests center on music education with a particular em-
xx phasis on music perception and cognition. He has published numerous articles and book
chapters in collaboration with Micheál Houlahan. He has served on editorial boards and
has been a grant evaluator on the American Fellowship Panel for the American Association
of University Women. Prior to his current position he was an associate professor of music
in the Department of Art, Music and Theatre at Georgetown University, Washington,
DC. He worked with the Georgetown University Medical School’s Institute for Cognitive
and Computational Science in music perception neuropsychology. He regularly presents
papers and workshops nationally and internationally on music education, perception
and cognition, and Kodály studies. He has lectured in Italy, Denmark, Finland, Hungary,
Estonia, The Netherlands, and England.
Micheál Houlahan and Philip Tacka’s collaboration has yielded numerous books,
book chapters, and articles. Their most recent publications include the “Zoltán Kodály”
entry in Oxford Bibliographies Online (2012) and the chapter “From Sound to Symbol: A
New Pitch for Developing Aural Awareness” in Sound Musicianship: Understanding the
Crafts of Music (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013). Books and articles include Kodály
Today: A Cognitive Approach to Music Education and From Sound to Symbol: Fundamentals
of Music (2011), both published by Oxford University Press. In 2015 Oxford University
Press published their Kodály in the Classroom series, which includes handbooks for grades
1–5 and Kodály in the Kindergarten Classroom: Developing the Creative Brain in the Twenty-
First Century. Additional publications include Sound Thinking: Music for Sight-Singing
and Ear Training (2 vols.) and Sound Thinking: Developing Musical Literacy (2 vols.), both
published by Boosey & Hawkes. Zoltan Kodály: A Guide to Research (Garland) is their
comprehensive reference work. Articles appear in the Kodály Envoy, the Journal of Music
Theory Pedagogy, the Indiana Theory Review, and the International Kodály Society Bulletin.
Philip Tacka and Micheál Houlahan are authors of the Kodály article, bibliography, and
catalog of compositions in Millennium Edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians. Both Dr. Houlahan and Dr. Tacka received the Organization of American
Kodály Educators Lifetime Achievement Award in 2016.
We are incredibly grateful to Laura Petravage, who helped prepare the manuscript
and organized chapters 6 and 7 based on our work in Kodály Today.
Laura M. Petravage is a choral conductor and K–12 educator in Pennsylvania. She
currently teaches middle school general music and chorus for Carlisle Area Schools.
She has taught on the faculties of Millersville University (PA), Messiah University (PA),
George Mason University (VA), and American University (Washington, DC).
Laura Petravage completed her doctorate in choral conducting at George Mason
University and has degrees from the Eastman School of Music (MM, choral conducting),
American University (BA, music and French), and Millersville University (BSE, music edu-
cation) and a Kodály Certification from Texas State University. She is currently a member
of the OAKE National Choir Committee and founder and artistic director of the chamber
choir Ensemble du Pain Musical.
1
Chapter 1 1
Framing a Choral Curriculum Based

on the Kodály Philosophy
Despite its nineteenth century roots, the life’s work of Zoltán Kodály—his
compositions, his writings, and his teachings—awaits worldwide understanding.
It stands before us as one of the last exceptional examples of self-expressions of
modern freedom.1
This chapter provides

• an overview of the Kodály philosophy,
• discussion of perceived challenges in using this philosophy in the choral rehearsal
program,
• a definition of what it means to be a musician based on the Houlahan/Tacka multiple
dimensions of musicianship,
• a sample choral curriculum template that reflects the Kodály philosophy and the
Houlahan/Tacka multiple dimensions of musicianship, and
• questions to consider when designing a choral curriculum.
The Kodály Perspective in the Choral Rehearsal

Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) is an internationally recognized composer and music educator.
He was the founder of the Hungarian choral movement and he composed more than 160 a
cappella choral compositions.2 The Kodály concept(also known as the Kodály philosophy or
Kodály perspective) is based on his philosophical writings and incorporates principles of music
teaching developed by his colleagues and students. His contributions to choral music and
music education provided the impetus for developing new pedagogy for educating students
as musicians. The choral director’s own musicianship is one of the most important markers of
the Kodály perspective’s success in the choral rehearsal. As noted by David Elliott, “To teach
DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197550489.003.0001
2
Choral Artistry
music effectively, we must know our subject—music. We must embody and exemplify
musicianship.”3
What does this mean? How are we to communicate our musicianship to students in
meaningful ways? There are very few definitions of musicianship, and some of the most
2 common ones equate it with performance. This chapter offers a definition of musician-
ship and a guide to developing a comprehensive choral curriculum. The goal is to improve
students’ musicianship and enable them to become independent learners.
It has been our experience that most music educators believe that using a Kodály per-
spective in a choral rehearsal equates with the application of pedagogical methodological
tools such as solfège syllables and hand signs for reading repertoire. (In Chapter 5 we
present an overview of pedagogical tools such as rhythm and solfège syllables, counting
with numbers, and singing with absolute letter names.) These tools can and do help a di-
rector enhance students’ musicianship and audiation skills. The use of tools and teaching
techniques not related to specific repertoire (e.g., singing scales with solfège syllables
and hand signs, learning how to read repertoire by writing solfège syllables into a score,
and memorizing solfège syllables by rote learning) is not, however, associated with the
Kodály concept. Teaching technically begins with a symbol analysis of repertoire, some-
thing that does not actually communicate the conductor’s musicianship to students.
“It is not a technique that is the essence of the art, but the soul, Teaching artistically
begins with a sound analysis of repertoire and is more effective in communicating the
conductor’s musicianship to their students. ”Kodály wrote. “As soon as the soul can com-
municate freely, without obstacles, a complete musical effect is created.”4
While the processes described above can result in learning a particular piece of music,
we do not believe that they offer the most effective way to develop choral singers’ musi-
cianship skills and make them independent musicians. The Kodály approach is not simply
about applying methodological tools; it is about opening the world of music to students.
The choral director’s musicianship, knowledge of repertoire, and approach to teaching the
repertoire create the context for music learning and choral singing.
Hallmarks of the Kodály Concept

Notable hallmarks of the Kodály approach to music education can be found in the prefaces
and epilogs to various publications in the Kodály Choral Library.5 This group of publications
is a collection of composed pedagogical materials for musicianship training for both be-
ginning and advanced students. It was published by Editio Musica Budapest and Boosey &
Hawkes. The English edition was titled Choral Method Series. Another valuable resource is
Lilla Gábor’s article “Kodály Principles in the Perspective of the 21st Century” available on-
line.6 Kodály also wrote several articles about music education and choral education; sev-
eral of these articles appear in The Selected Writings of Zoltán Kodály, published by Boosey
& Hawkes in 1974.7 These writings provide choral educators with a philosophical guide to
choral teaching.
The following are some of the essential philosophical underpinnings of the Kodály
philosophy:
1. The approach to teaching repertoire while developing music theory, reading, and
writing skills can be artfully accomplished through relative solmization. Kodály advocates
that we should “teach music and singing at school in such a way that it is not a torture
but a joy for the pupil; instill a thirst for finer music in him, a thirst which will last for
3
Framing a Choral Curriculum
a lifetime. Music must not be approached from its intellectual, rational side, nor should
it be conveyed to the child as a system of algebraic symbols or as the secret writing of
a language with which he has no connection. The way should be paved for direct intu-
ition.”8 Simply put, the Kodály concept emphasizes student intuition, discovery, and a
constructionist approach to teaching.9 Teaching music theory and music literacy through
3
music repertoire with the assistance of relative solmization can seamlessly fit into a
choral rehearsal. We deconstruct repertoire for students so that they can reconstruct it
for themselves. The process of learning repertoire and skills begins with the sounds of
music. Asking students questions as they listen is an essential component of the choral
rehearsal. We believe that a choral director needs to prepare students’ ears and eyes with
aural and visual preparation activities before teaching each piece of choral music. In other
words, the more listening experiences you can provide before showing students the score,
the more connected the singers will become with the repertoire. Building on students’
aural understanding of the repertoire, a choral director can begin to make connections
with the visual aspects of the score. We consider the following to be of significant impor-
tance: “Although disciplined practice is part of the task, a young aspiring musician’s spirit
can be deadened in the face of a curriculum of tasks to be done, and discriminations to
be learned in a standardized way, however, ‘age-appropriate’ its methods strive to be.”10
The goal is to make music and let students discover music knowledge for themselves by
means of the director’s careful guidance.
2. Music literacy instruction should follow a structured sequence using a sound-to-
symbol orientation in order to help develop audiation skills. Another vital component of
the Kodály approach is the choral director’s ability to link learning repertoire with devel-
oping skills. Of course, there is the usual dilemma regarding preparing choirs for perfor-
mance versus developing students’ musicianship. We believe that they are not mutually
exclusive activities.
3. Music teachers should possess and model excellent musicianship. Consider the
pedagogical model used by exceptional studio instructors. Students learn the craft of
music from individuals who themselves are excellent musicians. In Kodály’s words: “There
is a need for better musicians, and only those will become good musicians who work at
it every day. The better a musician, the easier it is for him to draw others into the happy,
magic circle of music. Thus will he serve the great cause of helping music to belong to
everyone.”11 Kodály thus advises choral directors to continue developing their own skills.
Excellent musicianship and leadership skills are not solely for to professional performing
ensembles.
4. Singing is the essence of the Kodály approach. Tuneful singing is the foundation
for developing music skills. Though it may seem obvious, the voice is the primary instruc-
tional tool in the choral rehearsal. The choral director should use his or her voice rather
than the piano as the primary means of communication. Use your own voice to demon-
strate phrasing and dynamics, especially for a cappella singing. For a cappella singing,
especially with beginning choirs, avoid using the piano because it can negatively impact
intonation skills. That said, there are times when the choral director needs to use the
piano. For example, if you want the choir to hear how one line of music sounds with an-
other line, then you can sing one part and play the other part or parts on the piano. The
singing voice is essential in developing audiation and teaching musicianship in choral
rehearsals. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 explain how to teach musicianship skills appropriate for
different choirs; the common denominator is singing. Audiation is an essential skill for all
4
Choral Artistry
musicians. Kodály states: “Brilliant pianists are unable to write down or to sing a simple
one-part tune faultlessly after hearing it fifteen or twenty times. How do they expect to
imagine an intricate piece of several parts if their internal ear is undeveloped? They only
play with their fingers and not with their heads and hearts.”12
4 Robert Schumann’s Musikalische Haus-und Lebens-Regeln (Music Rules at Home and
in Life),13 often quoted by Kodály, contains the same advice about the importance of
singing regularly in a choir, especially with regard to the inner voice. The ability to audiate
not only the melody but the harmonization, and the importance of understanding music
by merely seeing it on a page, are skills that needs continual practice.
Singing is an essential skill; it helps develop engaged listening and part-singing.
During the choral rehearsal you should include as many movement activities as possible.
Lásló Vikár, an ethnomusicologist who was a student of Kodály, noted that “instinctive
music is always accompanied by movement.”14 When teaching students how to sing, it is
important that they also learn folk song games and dances because these movements will
add to the enjoyment of singing. Students need a structured approach to (1) acquire the
ability to sing in parts and (2) engage listening skills that will enable them to hear addi-
tional voice parts as they perform their own. We will refer to these two skills collectively
as part-work skills and will address them in Chapter 4.
5. Selecting quality (choral) repertoire is foundational for developing musicianship.
Kodály believed that the performance of inferior music inhibits the growth of musical
understanding. The manner of presenting this material has a lasting effect on the devel-
opment of a student’s musical taste. “Conversely,” he wrote, “only art of intrinsic value is
suitable for children! Everything else is harmful. After all, food is more carefully chosen
for an infant than for an adult. Musical nourishment, which is ‘rich in vitamins,’ is essen-
tial for children.”15 This quotation applies to both children and adults.
The selection of musical materials and repertoire is essential not merely to develop
an appreciation for quality music but to enhance audiation, part-work, music theory
knowledge, and sight-reading skills. Kodály was clear about the significance of singing
folk songs and for younger students playing and singing traditional folk song games and
folk dances. He was convinced that these masterpieces are the keys to introducing other
masterpieces. When approached correctly, they can lay the foundation for singing all
styles of music, even very complex twentieth-century music. Kodály was also unwavering
in his belief in the importance of singing the music of Bach and Palestrina. Chapter 3 ex-
pand on this topic.
6. Developing the various forms of musicianship in a choral rehearsal is vital. In
order to help build students’ self-knowledge, self-awareness, and emotions, we need to
help them become stewards of their musical and cultural heritage, performers, critical
thinkers, creative human beings, and informed audience members. Chapter 9 addresses
these multiple dimensions of musicianship. Our approach to teaching impacts the
way our students perform repertoire. Their performance is affected by their ability to
audiate the scale. They become informed audience members by gaining an historical per-
spective on repertoire from different style periods. Developing musicianship skills in the
context of a choral rehearsal impacts the performance level of every choir. This transfer
of learning is central to enhancing the performance skills of a choir and creating inde-
pendent choral singers who can then work in a partnership with their choral conductor.
These choral singers sing in choir and will have a voice.16
5
7. Choral music education should be initially founded on a cappella singing and

without overuse of the piano. If choral students are to become independent singers,
they need to learn to sing from the choral director, not from a piano. A cappella singing
strengthens singing abilities as well as audiation. As noted by Kodály, this is especially
important when singing polyphonic music, which requires accurate intonation and
5
singing with acoustically precise intervals. This can only be accomplished when students
can hear the other voice parts as they are singing their own. In other words, learning
to sing in parts without learning to hear parts will not produce a secure performance.
Teaching students the voice part of an a cappella piece of music from a piano, a tempered
instrument, can best be labeled as a technical teaching approach; the product will sound
out of tune and will likely not be artistic. According to Kodály, “those who always sing in
unison never learn to sing in the correct pitch. Correct unison singing can, paradoxically,
be learned only by singing in two parts: the voices adjust and balance each other.”17
The ultimate goal of Kodály’s philosophy of music was the education of both amateurs
and professionals. “The aim: Hungarian music culture. The means: making the reading
and writing of music general through the schools. At the same time, the awakening
of a Hungarian music approach in the training of artists and audiences. The raising of
Hungarian public taste in music and continual progress towards what is better and more
Hungarian. To make the masterpieces of world literature public property, to convey them
to every kind and rank. The total of all of these will yield the Hungarian music culture,
which is glimmering before us in the distant future.”18
Perceived Challenges in Using the Kodály Philosophy

in the Choral Rehearsal
The Kodály philosophy or concept of music education has not been adopted widely in
middle school, high school, and college-level choral programs or musicianship classes.
The following are some of the perceived challenges in using the Kodály approach in a
choral rehearsal that we have heard from our own graduate students and from choral
conductors in the field. We follow each perceived challenge with a possible reason for the
existence of this challenge.
1. Using folk music in a choral setting is too elementary for a middle school choral rehearsal
and certainly not suitable for a high school or college-level choir. Choral directors often do not
understand the many ways folk music can enhance the choral music curriculum. Singing
folk songs is an integral component of the Kodály approach. Both Bartók and Kodály
considered folk music to be on an equal footing with classical music masterpieces. Folk
songs provide an excellent means for developing a love of great music, and this repertoire
is helpful for developing tuneful singing.
A goal of the Kodály approach is to begin the teaching of music with folk music
belonging to the students’ cultural heritage. This repertoire provides a foundation for
studying global folk music, art music, and recently composed music. A student’s own folk
music contains the artistic and music theory knowledge for studying global folk music
and other types of music. A review of Chapters 6–8 demonstrates that all of the signifi-
cant stylistic elements found in all music styles appear in folk music. Folk songs can open
up the world of classical and contemporary masterpieces for students. We address this
in Chapter 8, and in Chapter 11 we provide examples of contemporary choral repertoire
taught through the use of folk music.
6
Choral Artistry
2. Pentatonic music is not relevant in a middle school, high school, and college-level choral
program. For some choral directors, pentatonic music appears to be a significant roadblock
to implementing a choral curriculum based on the Kodály approach. Choral directors as-
sociate pentatonic music with elementary song repertoire. But, of course, this is an over-
6 simplification. That said, later in this text we will show how the most basic pentatonic folk
songs open up the world of choral literature. (In Chapter 11, we use pentatonic music to
teach complicated serial music.) For example, singing several pentatonic songs together
as partner songs or in canon opens up a world of tone clusters found in contemporary
music. Singing the different types of pentatonic scales is a key to opening up the world of
modal music. Singing a series of intervals and modulations composed of the notes la-so-
mi melodic intervals but constantly modulating and reinterpreting these notes in various
keys can open up the world of twentieth-century choral music. Bartók uses pentatonic
intervals to create typical chord structures found in his music.19
In a Kodály-inspired choral rehearsal, the director uses pentatonic folk music to im-
prove intonation and audiation skills and to teach music literacy and part-singing. The
pentatonic system allows students to associate syllables to sounds without thinking
about the major scale’s theoretical structures. Students become familiar with the pri-
mary melodic and harmonic intervals of the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh,
and octave.
3. The emphasis on sound-to-symbol models for teaching music concepts and repertoire is
only suitable for elementary music programs and not for middle school, high school, or college-
level musicians.
Often, theory classes at the undergraduate and graduate levels do not teach musi-
cianship according to the Kodály approach; choral pedagogy classes do not take the time
to discuss or demonstrate how incorporating the Kodály approach in the choral rehearsal
could enhance a choir’s musicianship. Most choral directors’ understanding of the Kodály
approach is associated with the use of moveable do; the more significant aspects of the
approach are missing. Most music theory and aural skills courses approach the subject
primarily through a symbol-to-sound orientation to instruction. In this process the pre-
sentation of music theory begins with a symbol’s name and its mathematical relationships
to other symbols (the subject/logic approach). Unfortunately, this process might not be
the best approach to developing audiation skills, an essential ability for performing and
sight-reading music. This method parallels an approach to language teaching beginning
with learning words visually and decoding words before mastering how to comprehend
and speak the language.
In most undergraduate programs, one often finds music theory teaching separated
from the aural skills class. In many cases, students’ auditory development falls signifi-
cantly behind their written analytical abilities.
For choral directors, this unfortunately reinforces two misconceptions: (1) that the
Kodály approach is not appropriate for teaching advanced musical concepts and (2) that a
symbol-to-sound orientation to teaching is the fastest way to teach music theory. Symbol-
to-sound teaching does not support the sequential development of audiation. College-
level aural skills classes often fail to develop high-level musicianship because of the lack
of emphasis on developing audiation skills. For example, even within the practice of
rhythm patterns found in simple meters, there is a broad variety of complicated patterns
that need to be sequenced and presented if we are to develop the skills of audiation and
fluency in music reading. Subject/logic teaching does not facilitate audiation.
7
Time is not spent in aural classes developing audiation skills and delving into the ap-
plication of solfège to reading and understanding specific styles of music. For example,
pre-service choral directors do not receive sufficient and practical experience in
• singing and understanding the stylistic traits of modal music, 7
• employing different solfège syllables to reading imitative voices or modal
modulations,
• developing expertise in reading modulations with solfège syllables,
• reading chromatic music using moveable do solfège syllables, and
• reading twentieth-century music using moveable do and reading complex tonal
music with shifting tonalities and using solfège as a stepping stone to reading
atonal music.
High school and college-level choral directors find that students do not have suffi-
cient audiation skills to sight-read music; they often resort to teaching music using a
symbol to sound orientation. Many choral directors allow students to label pitches in a
score with solfège syllables; some ask them to memorize these syllables by listening to
the music performed on the piano by the choral director. This approach will not develop
students’ part-singing and audiation abilities. When students are not given the oppor-
tunity to audiate solfège syllables, they are simply learning the pitches’ sounds by rote
and resort to a kind of muscle memory for learning the repertoire. This method does not
reflect the current research findings from music perception and cognition regarding how
students learn and internalize information.
What would the sound-to-symbol process look like for developing musicianship skills
for expert musicians? How is this to be accomplished? The following is an overview of
a music theory courses taught according to the Kodály approach. In the music theory
sequence of classes at the Tell School of Music, Millersville University of Pennsylvania,
classes begin with gaining an understanding of the fundamental stylistic forms, meters,
rhythm patterns, melodic patterns, and tonalities of folk music. This is accomplished
in large part by an emphasis aural skills training in Music Theory 1. Also included is
a study of harmonic functions and primary chord progressions. This knowledge lays
the groundwork for understanding all other types of music. Music Theory 2 students
study modal folksongs, leading to the study of medieval and Renaissance music. In
Music Theory 3 students learn and sing folk songs and global folk music that include
challenging rhythms (especially in compound meters), sequences, decorative notes,
seventh chords, secondary dominants, and folk songs with fifth changes involving
real and tonal answers. Real answers occur when phrases of music transpose a fifth
above. In tonal answers, the tonic note in the original melody is answered by the dom-
inant note; the dominant is answered by the tonic or vice versa. This leads to studying
Baroque music, which includes exploration of seventh chords and the Neapolitan chord.
Students continue their work with diatonic folk songs that include triadic melodies
with clear harmonic functions, chromatic notes, modulations, and sixteen strophic
bar forms. This leads to the study of Classical music, including the analysis of altered
tonic and secondary dominant chords and augmented sixth chords. In Music Theory 4,
students study global folk songs with lowered thirds and sixths. This leads to a study of
Schubert’s and Brahms’s harmonization of folk songs and a study of Romantic music.
Global music that contains different mixed meters, asymmetric meters, pentatonic
music, modal melodies, and hybrid scales leads to a study of post-tonal and atonal
8
Choral Artistry
twentieth-century repertoire where reading with solfège prepares the way for reading
with letter names. In all music theory classes, students must be able to improvise in
the style of the repertoire they are studying. The Performance Through Sound Analysis
(PTSA) and Performance Through Sound Analysis (PTSAN) approaches to teaching
8 becomes the benchmark for developing essential musicianship skills of professional
musicians.
4. Correcting intonation from a keyboard is more helpful than using the voice and solfège
syllables. Using a sound-to-symbol orientation to teaching, singing with moveable do
solfège syllables and hand signs is a means for developing intonation and audiation
skills. For example, so-mi and la-do are important intervals that can be difficult to sing
in tune because the voiced intervals are much wider than the tempered minor third. The
so-la-so-mi pattern is an opportunity for singers to explore the “small” major second,
so-la, compared to the tempered second or larger major second, la-ti. Training choirs to
hear these differences prepares students for singing complex intervals such as dimin-
ished thirds and the various wider intervals and narrow chromatic intervals. Most choral
teachers are not taught these nuances in their musicianship classes. As a result, they
lack some important skills that significantly impact the intonation of their students.
Correcting intervals from a piano will not help students develop the skills needed to sing
these intervals correctly when singing a cappella music. The curriculum sequence detailed
in Chapters 6–8 provides ways for choral directors to help their students hear the differ-
ence between small and large significant seconds and minor thirds, and this practice ulti-
mately will improve the intonation of their choirs.
5. There is a lack of training in undergraduate and graduate choral pedagogy classes
with regard to incorporating the Kodály approach into choral rehearsals. Choral directors
do not generally learn or study how to incorporate the Kodály approach into choral
rehearsals. Lack of training often prevents them from exploring the benefits of this
approach. The Kodály approach to teaching does take a lot of time to do well; how-
ever, it can provide a pedagogical model that places music literature, part-work, music
theory, improvisation, composition, arranging, reading, and sight-reading skills at
the heart of the choral experience. This approach changes the traditional process
of focusing on learning individual music lines and allows students to hear and sing
part-music.
6. I don’t have time to teach music using the Kodály philosophy in the choral rehearsal.
Choral directors may appreciate the value of the Kodály approach to teaching choral
music, but they sometimes feel that they simply do not have the time to implement
this training system in their choral program. In the following chapters, we will provide
guidelines for teaching music, teaching music literacy, and learning scores that should
create time in the rehearsal for adopting this approach, which so significantly impacts
performances and their students’ musicianship.
Framing a Choral Curriculum Based on the Kodály

Philosophy and the Multiple Dimensions of Musicianship
Kodály’s beliefs regarding the importance of developing musicianship are reflected in
a speech titled “Who Is a Good Musician?” given at the end of the 1953–54 academic
year at the Liszt Academy, Budapest, Hungary. He summarized the characteristics of a
9
good musician as someone who had (1) a well-trained ear, (2) a well-trained intelligence,
(3) a well-trained heart, and (4) a well-trained hand. He believed that these were the es-
sential components of musicianship. He inspired his colleagues and students to develop
goals for music educators and students to foster the development of all these aspects of
musicianship. We would like to expand on this definition of musicianship by looking at
9
the shared skills and knowledge of expert musicians who represent music from both the
sound-based and the symbol-based traditions of learning and making music. Musicians
who work primarily in each organizing system include folk, classical, country, jazz and,
commercial experts.20 As Brinner noted, all expert musicians have “a mastery of the array
of interrelated skills and knowledge that is required of musicians within a particular tra-
dition or musical community and is acquired and developed in response to and in accord-
ance with the demands of possibilities of general and specific cultural, social and musical
conditions.”21 We propose a definition of good musician based on these “interrelated skills
and knowledge.”
Using the Kodály philosophy as a frame of reference, we can define who a good mu-
sician is in terms of five dimensions shared by all types of musicians, regardless of their
ability to read or write music.22 According to the Multiple Dimensions of Musicianship
and Knowledge rubric, all musicians are
• Performers who can sing, play instruments (traditional and classical), perform
traditional games and use movement to achieve an artistic performance, and
conduct. From a Kodály perspective, singing and inner hearing, or audiation, play
an essential role in shaping a performance.
• Stewards of their cultural heritage having a knowledge of sound and/or symbol
repertoires.
• Critical thinkers able to aurally and visually analyze the sounds and/or the
symbols of music using both “sound” music theory and “symbol” music theory.
• Creative human beings able to improvise, compose, and arrange music and having
a knowledge of technology that will assist them as musicians
• Informed listeners and audience members with an understanding of stylistic and
musicological aspects of music.
An expert musician is someone who displays all of these interrelated skills at a signif-
icant level of achievement. All these skills function at a high level of mastery. Choral
directors are responsible for developing a choral program that will foster these skills in
their students.
Although every choral director will ultimately create his or her own measurable goals
and outcomes for the choral program, we provide the following as a helpful beginning.
Shared by the students and the conductor, goals and outcomes should influence
choral instruction’s overarching curricular structure. These outcomes apply to all choral
ensembles, whether non-auditioned or the most noted ensemble at the school. The job
of the director is to adapt these goals to suit the individual goals of the students and the
institution. The following are some essential goals for choral singers.
1. Students should learn to perform artistically with their voice, alone and in a choral
setting, with excellent intonation.
2. Students should perform repertoire from sound-based traditions such as folk
music, global folk music, commercial music, and jazz, as well as from symbol-based
10
Choral Artistry
traditions such as classical music and recently composed music. From a Kodály
perspective, we include both sound and symbol repertoires in the curriculum. Folk
music, because of its role in sound tradition and impact on symbol traditions,
plays a crucial role in developing music literacy skills in the music curriculum.
10 3. Students should develop their ability to audiate music and use this skill when
singing, listening, analyzing music, reading, and sight-reading music.
4. Students should learn repertoire in a culturally appropriate way. Students learn
sound-based repertoires using the Performance Through Sound Analysis (PTSA)
model and symbol-based repertoires using a Performance Through Sound Analysis
and Notation model (PTSAN). (See Chapter 2 for teaching folk songs and canons
and Chapter 4 for teaching part-music using these models.)
5. Students should learn both sound and symbol music theory concepts so that they
can learn repertoire aurally and from music notation. (See Chapters 6–8.)
6. Students should develop the ability to improvise, compose, and arrange music.
7. Students should develop the ability to understand the history and musicological
aspects of the choral repertoire they’re performing.
8. Students should learn how to follow a conductor and understand the meaning of a
conductor’s cues and gestures.
Developing a Choral Curriculum Based on the Kodály

Philosophy and Multiple Dimensions of Musicianship
Our goal is to show how the central tenets of the Kodály philosophy and the multiple
dimensions of musicianship can shape a choral program. This book provides a choral
curriculum that combines practices from the sound and symbol traditions. The overall
goals of a choral program are to enable students to become stakeholders in their learning
process, become independent and confident musicians, and develop all of the multiple
dimensions of musicianship (MDMs). The latter can frame the best practices in choral
programs.
In this chapter we provide sample performance and reading and sight-reading goals.
Please consider the music theory curriculums for levels 1–3 found in Chapters 6–8 to
help you expand on the goals provided in the sample curriculum.
Performance Goals for a Choral Curriculum

Choral Students as Performers
Students develop their singing voices and improve their part-work skills (listening to
several parts and singing several parts) by singing both a cappella and accompanied rep-
ertoire. The selection of repertoire is, arguably, the most important task of the director.
A goal is for the director to deconstruct the repertoire for the students and guide them
to discover the structure of the works for themselves. In the process, students learn
how to perform the repertoire artistically and develop their knowledge of part-work and
audiation skills. Audiation skills are among the most significant music skills for perfor-
mance. We know that the best performers of any style of music can audiate the repertoire
they perform, decide how they want it to sound, and then use their voice to perform.
11
Schippers notes, “I remember the frustration at trying to master subtle ornamentation

in Indian classical music, where months of practice would not get me anywhere until with
conscious effort exasperated, some abstract connection was made between sounds heard
and fine motor skills, and the imagined sound would emerge.”23
Musicians from a symbol-based culture or tradition approach the study of music
11
primarily from an understanding of the music score. Such musicians intuitively recog-
nize the importance of audiation in creating a musical performance. Almost all expert
musicians know the benefits of singing to help internalize and shape the performance
of music. Performing music shaped by audiation and singing appears to be a perspective
shared by sound and symbol musicians. This should be our goal in learning repertoire in
the choral rehearsal.
Choral Students as Stewards of Their Cultural Heritage

All expert musicians have a considerable knowledge of at least one type of repertoire.
Their understanding of this repertoire offers valuable perspectives on its history; they
understand the role and place of the music. Expert musicians often have extensive know-
ledge of more than one type of music. They understand sound-based repertoires such
as folk music, commercial music, and jazz as well as symbol-based music, that is, music
learned from a score, such as classical music. They also have the critical thinking skills re-
quired to hear and learn this repertoire using sound or symbol literacy skills. Folk music
plays an integral role in the development of Western art music, and the study and perfor-
mance of folk music would appear to strengthen the performance practices of art music.
(See Chapter 3 for a discussion about the importance of including folk music repertoire
in the choral curriculum.)
As novice musicians, choral singers should perform repertoire that includes folk
music, global folk music, folk song arrangements, canons, art music, commercial
music, and recently composed music. (We use the term folk music to refer to music from
students’ own culture and global folk music to refer to music coming from other cultures.)
This broad introduction deepens students’ understanding of the various music styles,
providing the methodological tools and skills needed to artistically sing and interpret
a range of music. Regardless of period or genre, the emphasis is always on high-quality,
pedagogically relevant repertoire that is sensitive to cultural practices and norms.
(See Chapters 4, 10 and 11 for learning how to use the Performance Through Sound
Analysis and Performance Through Sound Analysis and Notation models in the choral
curriculum.)
Sample Performance Goals include the following:
Repertoire
• Expand repertoire to include both unison and part-music, folk music, global folk,
art music, contemporary music, commercial, and seasonal music.
• Be able to use the PTSA and/or PTSAN to learn and to discover and label the
stylistic elements in folk music repertoire. (For example, consider the stylistic
traits of European and African folk musics.)
• Be able to use the PTSA and/or PTSAN to learn and to discover and label the
stylistic elements in a variety of art music and contemporary music repertoire.
12
Choral Artistry
Singing
• Sing unison songs and part-music independently and in tune.
• Sing known repertoire in tune with rhythm syllables, solfège syllables, and
12 hand signs and letter names.
• Use rhythm syllables, counting numbers, neutral syllables, and solfège syllables to
read a song.
• Use music symbols and terminology (rhythm, melody, timbre, form, tempo,
dynamics, and articulation) to analyze music.
Part-work
• Sing songs antiphonally.24
• Perform call-and-response songs.
• Practice intervals melodically and harmonically, reading from the director’s
hand signs.
• Accompany a song with a rhythmic or melodic ostinato.
• Perform aural rhythmic canons. The teacher claps a rhythm and students follow
after four beats.
• Perform rhythmic canons reading from notation.
• Perform aural melodic canons. The teacher sings a melody and students follow
after four beats.
• Perform melodic canons from hand signs. The teacher shows the hand signs of a
canon and students follow in canon after two or four beats.
• Perform melodic canons reading from notation.
• Sing pentatonic melodies as two, three, four, and five-part canons. You may add as
many voice parts as make musical sense.
• Sing simple rhythmic or melodic canons derived from known pentatonic songs.
• Perform partner songs.
• Perform two-part rhythmic exercises based on rhythms from known songs.
• Perform descants and countermelodies.
• Perform two-part melodic exercises based on melodies from known songs.
• Sing in two-and three-part parallel harmony.
• Perform two-part arrangements of known folk songs.
• Sight-read two-part arrangements of unknown folk songs.
• Perform three-part arrangements of folk songs.
• Perform octavos in two or more voice parts with canonic imitation.
• Perform octavos in two or more voice parts with homophonic and or polyphonic
sections.
Conducting
• Conduct unison repertoire in simple and compound duple, triple, and quadruple
meters.
• Conduct repertoire in two and three parts in simple and compound duple, triple,
and quadruple meters.
13
Choral Students as Critical Thinkers

A goal of the choral rehearsal is to help students develop efficient and effective critical
thinking as performers. Choral directors can use the PTSA or PTSAN models for teaching
a score and developing critical thinking. Both systems use music terminology such as 13
form, meter, rhythm, tempo, melody, dynamics, articulation, and timbre to analyze.
Doing so helps chorus members become problem solvers and self-motivated, lifelong
learners. We approach critical thinking from the sound and symbol perspectives and de-
velop each of these ways of thinking independently and collectively.
We use sound-based critical thinking skills when using the PTSA model, and we
use both sound and symbol critical thinking skills when we use the PTSAN model for
teaching. When considering sight-reading skills, we combine sound and symbol critical
thinking skills to help students translate music’s sounds into symbols. “The opposition
between orality and literacy,” Lilliestam notes, “ought not to be seen as opposition be-
tween two conditions, as a dichotomy, but rather as a continuum where cultures have
different degrees (as well as types) of literacy.”25
Students should be able to listen to a performance and identify the form, text, in-
teraction of individual voice parts, and other musical elements aurally. Using the PTSA
model to learn composition, they can use sound-based music theory to learn the score.
Using the PTSAN model, students use their knowledge of symbol-based music theory and
inner hearing to read or sight-read music. This can include the use of rhythm syllables,
counting numbers, solfège syllables, letter names, scale degrees, and neutral syllables
to read (with the help of the choral director) or sight-read repertoire. Depending on the
students’ reading abilities, they can either read the score or sections of the score inde-
pendently or with the assistance of the director. More advanced students with consider-
able sight-reading experience can sight-read the score and move faster to internalize and
perform it. (See Chapter 5 for an overview of the pedagogical tools we use for teaching
reading and sight-reading. See Chapter 9 for teaching techniques related to reading and
sight-reading.)
Reading and Sight-Reading Goals for

a Choral Curriculum
In order to develop sight-reading skills, students must first develop their ability to read
familiar music with inner hearing. The value of teaching students simple folk songs,
translating the sounds into symbols with solfège and rhythm syllables, and then having
them read songs they can already perform is a valuable interim step to reading and sight-
reading. Once students can read known repertoire, they can sight-read new repertoire
if it contains the same basic rhythmic and melodic elements. (It is important to select
sight-reading repertoire carefully and make sure that students can sing it with musical
understanding.) In a choral rehearsal, one of the main reasons we teach folk songs is to
develop both sound and symbol critical thinking skills. Symbol-based critical thinking
skills include reading and writing of music.
14
Choral Artistry
Sample reading and sight-reading goals include the following:

Rhythmic elements
• Name, identify and describe rhythmic elements with rhythm syllables and music
14
theory vocabulary.
• Read or sight-read rhythmic notation with rhythm syllables and counting numbers
in simple, and compound, asymmetric, and mixed meter time signatures.
• Read or sight-read rhythmic exercises in two or more parts from notation with
rhythm syllables and counting numbers while conducting.
• Write unison and two-part rhythmic patterns from memory or dictation in
traditional rhythmic notation.
Melodic elements
• Name, identify, and describe melodic elements with solfège syllables and music
theory vocabulary.
• Read or sight-read, from the director’s hand signs, pentatonic, diatonic major or
minor, chromatic, modal, modulating, and atonal patterns and melodies.
• Read or sight-read melodies from rhythmic notation with solfège syllables written
beneath, with solfège syllables and hand signs.
• Read or sight-read known melodic patterns from the staff with solfège syllables
and hand signs.
• Read or sight-read from staff notation in major, minor, and modal, chromatic, and
atonal melodies with solfège syllables and absolute letter names. This can include
modulations to related keys as well as more advanced modulation.
• Read or sight-read melodies in two or more parts from staff notation.
• Read and analyze chord progressions from different style periods. (See Chapter 8.)
• Write known and unknown unison melodies from memory in traditional rhythmic
notation with solfège syllables written beneath or from staff notation.
• Write known and unknown short melodies in two or more parts from memory in
staff notation.
Harmony
• Accompany a folk song with notes representing harmonic functions.
• Sing and write basic harmonic chord progressions.
• Sing and write representative Renaissance chord progressions and cadences and
Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and twentieth-century chord progressions.
Audiation (Inner Hearing)

• Silently sing (audiate) melodic motifs or melodies from the director’s hand signs.
• Silently sing known and unknown unison songs and part songs with rhythmic
syllables.
• Silently sing known and unknown unison and part-songs with solfège syllables
and hand signs.
• Silently read rhythms or melodies written in traditional notation with solfège
syllables or from staff notation.
• Perform known melodies with inner hearing accompanied by an ostinato or other
voice part.
15
• Perform octavos with two or more voice parts with canonic imitation with inner
hearing.
• Perform octavos with two or more voice parts with homophonic or polyphonic
sections with inner hearing.
15
Form and Analysis
• Label phrase forms using capital letters to indicate large sections of a composition
and use lowercase letters to show the form of folk songs or smaller portions of a
composition.
• Understand how to analyze folk songs.
• Using the Performance Through Sound Analysis (PTSA) and the Performance
Through Sound Analysis and Notation (PTSAN) process, analyze and identify the
forms in Medieval, Renaissance,Baroque, Classical, Romantic, twentieth-century,
and commercial music.
Musical memory
• Echo sing melodies using solfège syllables and hand signs or absolute pitch
names.26
• Sing a memorized melody with absolute letter names while showing hand signs.
• Memorize a phrase of music by reading a score and audiating it while showing the
hand signs; then sing it from memory with solfège syllables and hand signs.
• Write a memorized melody in staff notation.
• Memorize multipart music.
• Memorize a chord progression.
In Chapters 6–8 we offer a comprehensive music theory curriculum for middle, high
school, and college-level choirs. Chapter 9 provides an overview of the different music
skills to consider when developing a choral curriculum.
Choral Students as Creative Human Beings

Because expert musicians have extensive knowledge of performance practices and reper-
toire, they are in a unique position to use this knowledge as the basis for creating music
through sound-based improvisations. It appears that sound-based musicians learn to im-
provise and create new texts, movements, rhythms, melodies, and harmonies without
being bound to the use of symbols. This is not always the case for symbol-based musicians.
It appears that sound musicians have more in-depth experience improvising music. This
process is again based on audiation.
As students learn to express themselves through improvisation, composition, and
arranging, they learn more about who they are and what they are capable of accomplishing.
Opportunities for sound and symbol improvisations, composition, and arranging in the
choral rehearsal can lead to significantly creative performances featuring student work
and collaborations. Students need opportunities to improvise using both sound-and
symbol-based techniques. One of the easiest ways to achieve this aim is to have them
create variations, arrange folk songs or compose music using their knowledge of forms,
meters, rhythmic building blocks, and tonalities. Audiation is an essential part of this
process because audiation abilities shape improvisations.
16
Choral Artistry
Sample improvisation goals include the following:

Sound to Symbol Rhythmic Improvisation
• Improvise a rhythmic improvisation using rhythm syllables according to a
16
given form.
• Improvise a new rhythm to a phrase of a known song written in traditional
notation.
• Improvise question-and-answer motives using known rhythmic patterns.
• Improvise a two-part rhythmic accompaniment to a known song.
Sound to Symbol Melodic Improvisation, Composition, and Arranging

• Improvise melodic patterns using solfège syllables and hand signs.
• Improvise a melodic chain, that is, begin each phrase with the last solfège syllable
used by the previous student.
• Improvise question-and-answer motives using known melodic patterns.
• Improvise short melodic motives using known scales.
• Improvise a two-part melody using hand signs.
• Improvise a folk song to a given form.
• Improvise a unison song to a given form.
• Improvise a variant of a folk song by incorporating a new rhythmic, melodic, or
harmonic element.
• Improvise a new melody by changing the meter or scale of a familiar song.
• Improvise a new melody by including new rhythmic and/or melodic pattersn.
• Improvise a melody over a chord progression.
• Improvise or compose a canon based on a given chord progression.
• Create a chord progression to accompany a melody.
• Arrange a folk song for two or more parts.
• Improvise a unison or two-part melody in the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical,
Romantic, or Twentieth century style.
See Chapter 9 for more details on using improvisation in the choral rehearsal.
Choral Students as Informed Listeners (Stylistic Analysis)

Global musicians understand the historical or musicological knowledge associated with
their repertoire and cultural heritage. They can identify, through sound analysis, the sty-
listic traits of this repertoire. In “symbol-based traditions, expert musicians can look at
a score, audiate it, and analyze it. Many expert musicians have a stylistic understanding
of both sound and symbol repertoires. Choral students should also be guided to acquire
this expertise.
Students in the twenty-first century are surrounded by music from a variety of media
sources. Music literacy concepts and elements can be reinforced by listening to repertoire
that includes performances from sound traditions, global folk music, and classical music.
Guide students to recognize important stylistic characteristics and provide them with the
historical, biographical, and cultural contexts of these compositions.
17
Sample goals for informed listeners and audience members include the following:
• Recognize a variety of musical timbres, including voice parts.
• Recognize musical, rhythmic, and melodic features in folk music and masterworks
from the various historical periods. 17
• Validate personal preferences for specific musical works and styles using known
music vocabulary.
• Include biographical knowledge of significant composers.
We need to create a music curriculum that embraces music from sound cultures and
symbol cultures. Our teaching repertoire and procedures should provide foundational
musicianship skills that enable our students to grow as consumers of music. Our curric-
ulum must support the growth and development of these skills. That said, it’s interesting
to consider Kodály’s statement that “the finest curricula and the wisest regulations is-
sued from above are of no value if there is nobody to put them into practice with convic-
tion and enthusiasm. Souls cannot be reshaped by administrations.”27
Questions to Consider When Creating a Choral

Studies Curriculum
For us, multiple dimensions of musicianship frame the objectives for the choral curric-
ulum. Choral directors need to determine specific outcomes for their performing groups.
Before creating a curriculum, it is helpful to assess a student’s previous knowledge of
performance and sight-reading in the audition. The multiple dimensions of musician-
ship parallel Schippers’ work, which provides five key domains of musicians’ “interrelated
skills and knowledge.”28 Our multiple dimensions of musicianship offer a framework for
demonstrating the commonalities between sound and symbol repertoires and musicians.
For symbol-based musicians, it restores the idea of sound as the starting point for
acquiring and developing musicianship.
The following questions are offered to help you tailor the above curricular
recommendations to your specific needs. Your curriculum and objectives must reflect
your teaching philosophy and personality as well as your content knowledge or expertise.
Remember to reinforce your school and district’s vision and mission and to incorporate
state and national standards for music.
What is your philosophy of choral education?
1. What is your philosophy of music education?
2. What role does (or can) the Kodály approach play in the development of your
curriculum?
3. What are the vision, mission, and goals for your choral program?
What repertoire do you use in the choral rehearsal?

1. How do you select the music repertoire for your choral program?
2. How does your classroom embrace cultural diversity through repertoire?
3. What is the role of folk music, world music, art music, and popular music in your
curriculum?
18
Choral Artistry
What musical skills will you develop in your choir?

1. How will you create a balance between the skills of performing, reading and
writing music, composing and improvising, and listening to music?
18 2. How will you create a choral rehearsal that develops the complete spectrum of
students’ musical skills?
3. What sound and symbol music theory concepts will your students master in a
given year?
4. In what ways will you guide students to use the known rhythmic and melodic
building blocks to create and arrange musical compositions, bolstering critical
thinking skills and creativity?
How do you tailor your teaching to various student populations with specific
learning needs?
1. What are some ways to meet the various needs of bilingual and ELL students to
strengthen their primary language and promote English language acquisition
through repertoire?
2. How do you use a broad range of musical genres and styles to reach various
populations and nurture lasting love and respect for all music?
3. How do you utilize a full range of learning techniques to reach multiple
populations?
4. What is the place of technology in the choral program?
5. How do you ensure a safe environment that encourages learning?
How do you keep your teaching relevant to modern music styles and genres?
1. How do you incorporate contemporary styles and genres of art music in the choral
rehearsal?
2. How do you include popular and jazz music in the choral rehearsal?
Answering these questions will determine the scope of your unique choral classroom. As
you consider them, remember that the foundations of the Kodály approach include an
emphasis on singing quality repertoire, developing part-singing ability, engaged listening
skills, developing music literacy skills through a discovery learning process, developing
audiation skills, and engaging all learners. Perhaps owing to time constraints, choral
directors generally spend more time teaching repertoire than they do developing students’
knowledge of broad-based musicianship skills in a choral rehearsal. The challenges facing
choral directors each year include concert deadlines, festival requirements, and changes to
their daily schedule. All of these challenges influence the rehearsal process and priorities.
Finding ways to develop the multiple dimensions of musicianship in all students is a fun-
damental requirement for creating effective choral programs that have a lasting musical
impact on students and the greater school community.
19
Chapter 2
19
Getting Started
Launching the Academic Year for Beginning,
Intermediate, and Advanced Choirs
The chapter includes

• a brief discussion about recruitment and community-building goals for choirs,
• auditioning and creating a musicianship profile for choral students,
• an overview of classroom management techniques,
• material to teach during the first few weeks of choral rehearsals,
• ways to teach folk songs and canons using the PTSA or PTSAN model of teaching, and
• evaluation rubrics for a beginning choral rehearsal plan.
Recruitment and Community-Building Goals for

a Choral Program
One of the most significant challenges for choral conductors is recruiting students for their
choirs. Students may join an organization if they hear it is going to be fun. Some may be more
motivated to join an ensemble that has a history of distinction. Appreciating and enjoying
choral singing sometimes develops at a later stage, however. The inspired choral teacher will
emphasize collaboration and combine it with music that students will enjoy performing.
The following are considerations to help middle school and high school choral directors
establish choirs and market the importance of choral ensembles to parents, administrators,
and colleagues.
Speak to your administration in January or February about the needs of the choral program. Do
not wait until the summer when fewer administrators are around and budgets have already
been determined. Discuss your budget, school trips, and fundraisers. Talk about the possibility
of allowing you to divide your choirs into different groups, perhaps based on skill levels.
DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197550489.003.0002
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The normal wastage, and the deduction for drafts sent to France
in May are more difficult to calculate, but I think we shall not be far
out in taking 3,000 as an outside allowance for the latter—which
affects only the Armies of Portugal and the Centre, since we have a
May 29th Return for Gazan’s Army, which of course sent nothing
away after that date. And in healthy months, such as May and early
June, the deficit from extra sick would not be large—indeed as many
men may have rejoined as convalescents as went into hospital,
since (except Villatte at Salamanca) the troops had never been
pressed or overmarched. It would be generous to allow 5,000 for
‘wastage’.
If so, the French had 63,000 men at Vittoria, but deducting non-
combatants (train, artificers, &c.) there would be 9,000 horse, over
46,000 men in the infantry divisions, and about 1,300 gunners with
the field and horse batteries not included in the infantry divisions,
also 1,000 sappers. This makes over 57,000 fighting men actually
available. There must also be a small addition for stray units of the
Army of the North known to have been present—not less than 500
nor more than 1,000. All attempts to bring down the French force
present to 45,000 men (Victoires et Conquêtes, vol. xxii) or 39,000
infantry and 8,000 horse (Jourdan) or ‘barely 50,000 men’ (Picard)
are inadmissible.
XI
BRITISH AND PORTUGUESE LOSSES AT
VITTORIA
I. BRITISH LOSSES
Killed. Wounded. Missing.
Off. Men. Off. Men. Off. Men. Total.
1st Division, General Howard:
Stopford’s Brigade
1st Coldstream
Guards, 1/3rd
Guards No casualties.
Halkett’s Brigade
1st, 2nd, 5th Line
K.G.L. — 1 — 1 — — 2
1st Light K.G.L. — 1 1 7 — — 9
2nd Light K.G.L. — 4 — 39 — — 43
Divisional Total — 6 1 47 — — 54
2nd Division, General Sir W. Stewart:
Cadogan’s Brigade
1/50th Foot — 27 7 70 — — 104
1/71st Foot 3 41 12 260 See below[1071] 316
1/92nd Foot — 4 — 16 — — 20
Byng’s Brigade
1/3rd Foot — 8 7 96 — — 110
1/57th Foot — 5 2 21 — — 28
1st Prov. [1072] Batt. — 3 2 35 — — 40
O’Callaghan’s Brigade
1/28th Foot — 12 17 171 — — 199
2/34th Foot — 10 3 63 — — 76
1/39th Foot — 26 8 181 — — 215
Divisional Total 3 136 58 913 — — 1,110
3rd Division, General Sir Thomas Picton:
Brisbane’s Brigade
1/45th Foot — 4 4 66 — — 74
74th Foot — 13 4 66 — — 83
1/88th Foot — 23 5 187 — — 215
5/60th Foot (3 comp.) — 2 2 47 — — 51
Colville’s Brigade
1/5th Foot 2 22 6 133 — — 163
2/83rd Foot 2 18 4 50 — — 74
2/87th Foot 1 54 12 177 — — 244
94th Foot — 5 6 56 — — 67
Divisional Total 5 141 43 782 — — 972
4th Division, General Sir Lowry Cole:
W. Anson’s Brigade
3/27th Foot — 7 3 32 — — 42
1/40th Foot — 5 3 34 — — 42
1/48th Foot — 1 — 18 — — 19
2nd Provisional[1073] — 4 — 6 — — 10
Skerrett’s Brigade
1/7th Foot — 2 — 2 — — 4
20th Foot — 3 — 1 — — 4
1/23rd Foot — 1 — 3 — — 4
Divisional Total — 23 6 96 — — 125
5th Division, General Oswald:
Hay’s Brigade
3/1st Foot — 8 7 96 — — 111
1/9th Foot 1 9 — 15 — — 25
1/38th Foot — — 1 7 — — 8
Robinson’s Brigade
1/4th Foot 1 12 6 72 — — 91
2/47th Foot 2 18 4 88 — — 112
2/59th Foot — 11 8 130 — — 149
7th Division, General Lord Dalhousie:
Barnes’s Brigade No casualties.
Grant’s Brigade
51st Foot 1 10 — 21 — — 32
68th Foot 2 23 9 91 — — 125
1/82nd Foot 1 5 3 22 — — 31
Chasseurs
Britanniques — 29 2 109 — — 140
Light Company
Brunswick-Oels[1074] 1 — — 5 — — 6
Light Division, General Charles Alten:
Kempt’s Brigade
1/43rd Foot — 2 2 27 — — 31
1/95th Rifles — 4 4 37 — — 45
3/95th Rifles 1 7 — 16 — — 24
Vandeleur’s Brigade
1/52nd Foot 1 3 1 18 — — 23
2/95th Rifles — — 1 8 — — 9
Cavalry.
R. Hill’s Brigade
(Household Cavalry) No casualties.
Ponsonby’s Brigade — — — 2 — — 2
G. Anson’s Brigade
12th Light Dragoons 1 3 — 8 — — 12
16th Light Dragoons — 7 1 13 — — 21
Long’s Brigade — — — 1 — — 1
V. Alten’s Brigade No casualties.
Bock’s Brigade — 1 — — — — 1
Fane’s Brigade
3rd Dragoon Guards — 3 1 4 — — 8
1st Royal Dragoons — — — 1 — — 1
Grant’s Brigade
10th Hussars — 6 — 10 — — 16
15th Hussars — 10 2 47 — — 59
18th Hussars 1 10 2 21 — — 34
Total Cavalry 2 40 6 107 — — 155
— 4 1 35 — — 40
Royal Horse Artillery
Field Artillery — 5 — 18 — — 23
K.G.L. Artillery — 2 — 5 — — 7
Royal Engineers — — 1 — — — 1
General Staff — — 8 — — — 8
General Total 21 498 192 2,764 — — 3,475
N.B.—In addition we have, undistributed under corps, 223 rank
and file missing, of whom all except about 40 of the 1/71st were
stragglers, not prisoners.
II. PORTUGUESE LOSSES
Ashworth’s Brigade (2nd Division)
6th Line — 1 — 10 — 1 12
18th Line — — — 1 — — 1
6th Caçadores 1 1 — 7 — — 9
Power’s Brigade (3rd Division)
9th Line 3 43 9 157 — — 212
21st Line 3 55 8 115 — 6 187
11th Caçadores — 3 2 7 — — 12
Stubbs’s Brigade (4th Division)
11th Line 1 36 6 109 — 1 153
23rd Line — 20 3 35 — — 58
7th Caçadores — 9 4 21 — — 35
Spry’s Brigade (5th Division)
3rd Line — 2 3 8 — — 13
15th Line — 6 3 19 — — 28
8th Caçadores — 13 2 25 — — 40
Lecor’s Brigade (7th Division)
7th Line — — — — — 6 6
Light Division
1st Caçadores — 2 — 2 — — 4
3rd Caçadores — — — 1 — — 1
17th Line — 7 1 20 — — 28
Silveira’s Division
Da Costa’s Brigade No casualties.
A. Campbell’s Brigade — 2 — 1 — 7 10
Pack’s Brigade
1st Line — 3 — — — — 3
16th Line 1 10 2 24 — — 37
4th Caçadores — 16 1 18 — — 35
Bradford’s Brigade
13th Line — — — 1 — 16 17
24th Line — — — 3 — 3 3
5th Caçadores — 4 — 5 — 2 11
Cavalry: in 6th Regiment — — — 2 — — 2
Artillery No casualties.
Total Portuguese Losses 9 233 44 592 — 43 921
III. SPANISH LOSSES
All in Morillo’s and Longa’s
Divisions 4 85 10 453 — — 562
TOTAL ALLIED LOSSES
British 20 489 192 2,749 — 233 3,675
Portuguese 9 223 44 592 — 43 921
Spanish 4 85 10 453 — — 562
Total 33 807 246 3,794 — 266 5,158
XII
FRENCH LOSSES AT VITTORIA: JUNE 21
[From the Official Returns, lent me by Mr. Fortescue.]
ARMY OF THE SOUTH

Killed. Wounded. Prisoners. ‘Disparus.’
Off. Men. Off. Men. Off. Men. Off. Men. Total.
Leval’s Division 4 98 17 395 4 133 — 108 759
Villatte’s Division — 43 2 212 — 22 — — 291
Conroux’s
Division 5 74 27 712 4 265 — — 1,087
Maransin’s
Brigade 3 80 21 510 4 63 — — 681
Daricau’s
Division 3 89 20 389 1 49 — 280 833
Pierre Soult’s
Cavalry — — 3 — — — — 3 6
Digeon’s
Dragoons — 18 11 69 1 3 — — 102
Tilly’s Dragoons — 2 — 19 1 3 — — 25
Artillery 2 20 — 366 — 100 — — 488
Engineers, &c. 1 2 — 2 — 23 — — 28
Total 18 426 101 2,674 15 661 — 391 4,300
ARMY OF THE CENTRE
‘Prisoners
Killed. Wounded. or missing.’
Darmagnac’s Division 9 96 33 414 3 791 1,346
Cassagne’s Division — 9 6 70 — 178 263
Treillard’s Dragoons — 6 1 17 — 56 80
Avy’s Chasseurs — 2 1 3 — 51 57
Artillery: no Returns ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Engineers — — — — — 4 4
Casapalacios’ Spaniards 5 20 12 21 — 300 358
Total 14 133 53 525 3 1,380 2,108
ARMY OF PORTUGAL
‘Prisoners
Killed. Wounded. or missing.’
Sarrut’s Division 2 51 26 505 4 224 812
Lamartinière’s Division 7 70 30 362 1 116 586
Mermet’s Light Cavalry — 18 8 42 — 29 97
Boyer’s Dragoons 1 16 8 80 — — 105
Artillery, Engineers, &c. ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Total 10 155 72 989 5 369 1,600
General Total
of the Three Armies 42 714 226 4,188 23 2,801 8,008
No return (as usual) from King Joseph’s Royal Guards, who had,
however, as Martinien’s lists show, 11 officers killed and wounded,
probably therefore 150 to 200 casualties in rank and file. Also no
returns from Artillery of Armies of the Centre and Portugal, from
whom Martinien shows 9 officer-casualties, or from the fractions of
the Army of the North present (3rd Line, &c.); the last show 3 officer-
casualties in Martinien. It is obvious that the official total is several
hundreds too small.
XIII
SIR JOHN MURRAY’S ARMY
ON THE TARRAGONA EXPEDITION: JUNE 1813
Advanced Guard Brigade. Colonel Adam:

2/27th, Calabrese Free Corps, 1st Anglo-Italian Levy, one
company Rifles of De Roll.
1st Division. General William Clinton. Brigadiers Honstedt and
Haviland-Smith:
1/58th, 2/67th, 4th Line Battalion K.G.L., Sicilian ‘Estero’ regiment
(2 batts.).
2nd Division. General John Mackenzie. Brigadiers Warren and
Prevost:
1/10th, 1/27th, 1/81st, De Roll-Dillon, 2nd Italian Levy.
Whittingham’s Spanish Infantry:
Guadalajara, Cordova, 2nd of Murcia, Mallorca, 5th Grenadiers.
Cavalry:
Two squadrons 20th Light Dragoons, two squadrons Brunswick
Hussars, one troop Foreign Hussars.
Artillery:
Two British and one Portuguese Field Batteries; one company
British and one Portuguese attached to Battering Train.
STATISTICS OF ABOVE. JUNE 4, 1813
[No regimental totals available.]
Officers. Men.
Infantry:
British, German Legion, De Roll-Dillon, 1st
and 2nd batts. Anglo-Italian Levy,
Calabrese Free Corps 345 8,040
Sicilian Estero Regiment 67 1,041
Whittingham’s Spanish Infantry 228 4,624
Cavalry 37 764 [726 horses]
Artillery 53 767
Engineers and Staff Corps 9 77
Total 739 15,313
XIV
SUCHET’S ARMY AT THE TIME OF SIR JOHN
MURRAY’S TARRAGONA EXPEDITION
I. THE ARMY OF VALENCIA.

MORNING STATE OF JUNE 16, 1813
Officers. Men. Total.
1st Division, General Musnier [at Perello near
Tortosa]: 1st Léger (2 batts.), 114th Line (3
batts.), 121st Line (2 batts.) 100 4,063 4,163
2nd Division, General Harispe [at Xativa]: 7th,
44th, 116th Line (2 batts. each) 97 3,967 4,064
3rd Division, General Habert [at Alcira]: 14th, 16th,
117th Line (2 batts. each) 118 4,002 4,120
3/5th Léger 18 601 619
Brigade detached from Catalonia, General
Lamarque: 3rd Léger, 11th Line (2 batts. each),
20th Line (2 batts.)[1075], 1st Italian Chasseurs (1
squadron) 89 3,240 3,329
Cavalry, General Boussard: 4th Hussars (4
squadrons), 12th Cuirassiers (4 squadrons),
24th Dragoons (3 squadrons), Neapolitan
Chasseurs (2 squadrons) 84 1,895 1,979
Cavalry from the Army of the Centre: 1 squadron
Westphalian Chasseurs 11 163 174
Artillery and Artillery Train 20 1,201 1,221
Sappers 8 366 374
Gendarmerie, Équipages Militaires, &c. 9 681 690
Italian Division Severoli [at Buñol]: 1st Ligne and
1st Léger (2 batts. each), and divisional artillery 57 2,008 2,065
Total 611 22,187 22,798
II. GARRISONS OF ARAGON (GENERAL PARIS)
10th Ligne (2 batts.), 81st Ligne (3 batts.), 8th
Neapolitans 87 3,302 3,389
12th Hussars (3 squadrons) 26 370 396
Artillery 6 245 251
Gendarmerie (6 companies) 28 1,105 1,133
Chasseurs des Montagnes 26 658 684
Spanish troops 7 151 158
Total 180 5,831 6,011
III. THE ARMY OF CATALONIA.
MORNING STATE OF JUNE 16
Division of Cerdagne, General Quesnel: 102nd
Line (2 batts.), 143rd Line (4 batts.), and details 113 2,961 3,074
Division of Upper Catalonia, General Lamarque:
32nd Léger and 60th Line (1 batt. each), 3rd
Provisional Regiment, and details 60 2,459 2,519
Arrondissement of Gerona, General Nogués: 60th
Line (2 batts.), 115th Line (1 batt.), and details 100 2,964 3,064
Beurmann’s Brigade: 115th Line (2 batts.), 23rd
Léger (2 batts.), and details 62 2,400 2,462
Petit’s Brigade: 23rd Ligne (1 batt.), 67th Line (2
batts.), Wurzburg (1 batt.), and details 87 1,972 2,059
Arrondissement of Barcelona, General Maurice
Mathieu: 5th Line (2 batts.), 79th Line (2 batts.),
18th Léger (2 batts.), 1st of Nassau (2 batts.),
29th Chasseurs (1 squadron), and details 162 6,857 7,019
Garrison of Lerida, General Henriod: 42nd Line (2
batts.), and details 39 1,404 1,443
Garrison of Tarragona: 20th Line (1 batt.), 7th
Italian Line (1 batt.), and details 60 1,456 1,516
Gendarmerie (6 companies) 33 1,015 1,048
Artillery and Train 17 1,152 1,169
Sappers and Miners 5 186 191
Total 738 24,826 25,566
N.B.—The Cavalry (29th Chasseurs, and an odd squadron of 1st
Hussars) was distributed in troops and half-troops all round the
brigades, the only solid bodies being one squadron with Beurmann’s
brigade, and one at Barcelona. The total number of sabres was 670
only.
XV
SPANISH ARMIES ON THE EAST COAST:
JUNE 1, 1813

First Army (General Copons).
1st Division (Eroles): 5 batts. and 2 squadrons 202 4,357 4,559
2nd Division (?): 7 batts. and 2 squadrons 309 5,124 5,433
Garrisons: 5 batts. and details 272 5,497 5,769
Total 783 14,978 15,761
Second Army (General Elio).
1st Division (Mijares): 6 batts. 230 4,125 4,355
2nd Division (Villacampa): 4 batts., 2 squadrons 209 4,355 4,564
3rd Division (Sarsfield): 5 batts., 2 squadrons. 206 5,178 5,384
4th Division (Roche), 5 batts. 199 4,237 4,436
5th Division (the Empecinado): 4 batts., 2
squadrons 135 4,113 4,248
6th Division (Duran): 4 batts., 3 squadrons 199 5,264 5,463
Cavalry Brigade: 2 regiments 61 953 1,014
Artillery 41 741 782
Engineers and Sappers 31 228 259
Total 1,311 29,294 30,605
Third Army (Duque Del Parque).
1st Division (Prince of Anglona): 8 batts. 210 4,932 5,142
2nd Division (Marquis de las Cuevas): 7 batts. 187 3,438 3,625
3rd Division (Cruz Murgeon): 7 batts. 118 2,656 2,774
Cavalry Brigade (Sisternes) 42 664 706
Artillery, &c. 21 323 344
578 12,013 12,591
Total
XVI
THE ARMY OF SPAIN AS REORGANIZED BY
SOULT:
JULY 1813
N.B.—Numerals appended to a regiment’s name give the number
of battalions in it, when they exceed one.
Officers
and men
present.
1st Division. Foy.
Brigade Fririon: 6th Léger. Late Foy’s Division Army of Portugal.
69th Line (2). Ditto.
76th Line. Ditto. 5,922
Brigade Berlier: 36th Line (2). Late Sarrut’s Div. A. of P.
39th Line. Late Foy’s Div. A. of P.
65th Line (2). Late Sarrut’s Div. A. of P.
2nd Division. Darmagnac.

Brigade Chassé: 16th Léger. Late Darmagnac’s Div. Army of the
Centre.
8th Line. Ditto.
28th Line (2). Late Cassagne’s Div. A. of C. 6,961
Brigade 51st Line.
Ditto.
Gruardet:
54th Line. Ditto.
3rd Division. Abbé.

Brigade 27th Léger. Late Villatte’s Div. Army of the 8,030
Rignoux: South.
63rd Line. Ditto.
64th Line[1076] (2). Late garrison of Vittoria A. of
N.
Brigade 5th Léger (2). Late Abbé’s Div. A. of N.
Rémond:
94th Line (2). Late Villatte’s Div. A. of S.
95th Line. Ditto.
4th Division. Conroux.

Brigade Rey: 12th Léger (2). Late Maransin’s Brigade A. of S.
32nd Line (2). Late Conroux’s Div. A. of S.
43rd Line (2). Ditto.
Brigade 45th Line. Late Maransin’s Brigade A. of S. 7,056
Schwitter:
55th Line. Late Conroux’s Div. A. of S.
58th Line. Ditto.
5th Division. Vandermaesen.

Brigade Barbot: 25th Léger. Late Barbot’s Div. A. of P.
1st Line. Late garrison of Burgos, A. of N.[1077]
27th Line. Late Barbot’s Div. A. of P.
Brigade Rouget: 50th Line. Ditto. 4,181
59th Line. Ditto.
130th Line (2). Late Vandermaesen’s Div. A. of
N.
6th Division. Maransin.

Brigade St. Pol: 21st Léger. Late Daricau’s Div. A. of S.
24th Line. Late Leval’s Div. A. of S.
96th Line. Ditto.
Brigade 28th Léger. Late Daricau’s Div. A. of S. 5,966
Mocquery:
101st Line (2). Ditto.
103rd Line. Ditto.
7th Division. Maucune.

Brigade 17th Léger. Late Maucune’s Div. A. of P. 4,186
Pinoteau:
66th Line. Ditto.
Brigade 34th Léger. Late Vandermaesen’s Div. A. of N.
Montfort:
82nd Line. Late Maucune’s Div. A. of P.
86th Line. Ditto.
8th Division. Taupin.

Brigade 9th Léger (2). Late Leval’s Div. A. of S.
Béchaud:
26th Line. Late Taupin’s Div. A. of P.
47th Line (2). Ditto. 5,981
Brigade 31st Léger.
Ditto.
Lecamus:
88th Line. Late Leval’s Div. A. of S.
9th Division. Lamartinière.

Brigade Menne: 2nd Léger. Late Sarrut’s Div. A. of P.
118th Line (2). Late Lamartinière’s Div. A. of P.
119th Line (2). Ditto. 7,127
Brigade 120th Line (3).
Ditto.
Gauthier:
122nd Line (2). Ditto.
Reserve (General Villatte).

Brigadiers: Thouvenot and Boivin.
(1) 1/4th Léger. Late Sarrut’s Division A. of P. 9,102
1 & 2/10th Léger. Late Abbé’s Division A. of N.
3/31st Léger. Late garrison of Vittoria A. of N.
1/3rd Line. Late Abbé’s Division A. of N.
2/34th Line. Late Vandermaesen’s Division A. of N.
1 & 3/40th Line. Late Vandermaesen’s Division A. of N.
1/101st Line. Late garrison of Vittoria A. of N.
1 & 2/105th Line. Late Abbé’s Division A. of N.
4/114th Line (detachment). Old Bayonne Reserve
4 & 5/115th Line. Old Bayonne Reserve
4/116th Line. Old Bayonne Reserve
3/119th Line. Late Biscay garrisons
Total: 17 battalions.
(2) Foreign troops:
Neuenstein’s German Brigade, 4th Baden, 2nd Nassau (2),
Frankfort 2,066
St.Paul’s Italian Brigade 2nd Léger, 4th and 6th Line 1,349
Casapalacios’ Spanish Brigade—Castile, Toledo, Royal Étranger 1,168
King Joseph’s Guard (General Guy). 3 regiments 2,019
(3) Gendarmes à pied of the 4th and 5th Legions 900
National Guards 650
Total of Reserve 17,254
This total, as is obvious, much exceeds the 12,654 given as the
total of the Reserve by the tables which Soult sent to Paris on July
16 as representing his available troops. These tables omit the
following French battalions which were all undoubtedly on the
Pyrenean frontier in July 1813 as they formed parts of the armies of
the North and Portugal or of the old Bayonne Reserve in the returns
of May, and are all found again present in the returns of September
—1/3rd Line, 2/34th Line, 1 & 2/40th Line, 1 & 2/105th Line, 4/116th
Line, 4/117th, 2/10th Ligne: i.e. 8-1/2 battalions, which easily account
for the 4,600 men short in Soult’s total. After the battles of the
Pyrenees, in which Maucune’s and Vandermaesen’s divisions were
so cut up that they had to be re-formed with new units, the following
battalions, whose existence is concealed by Soult in his July table,
were drafted in to them—1 & 3/40th Line into Vandermaesen’s
division, 1/3rd, 1 & 2/105th, 2/10th Léger, into Maucune’s. Obviously
then, they were available, though omitted. The 4/116th and 4/117th
(a fragment of four companies) came into the fighting divisions later,
but must have been somewhere behind the Bidassoa all the time
(having belonged to the old Bayonne Reserve).
Officers and
men present.
Cavalry:
Acting as Corps-cavalry with the field army: 13th, 15th, 22nd
Chasseurs 808
P. Soult’s Division: 5th and 12th Dragoons, 2nd Hussars, 5th, 3,981
10th, 21st Chasseurs, Nassau Chasseurs, Spanish Cavalry
Treillard’s Division: 4th, 14th, 16th, 17th, 21st, 26th Dragoons 2,358
Total cavalry 7,147
This makes the total available for service in the field:
Infantry 72,664
Cavalry 7,147
Total 79,811
while Soult only gave himself credit for 69,543, including the
Reserve, for his field army.
In addition, there were half-trained conscripts at Bayonne 5,595.
Garrisons of San Sebastian 3,185, Santoña 1,465, Pampeluna 3,550
= 8,200. Also sick 14,074, and detached 2,110.
Finally, ‘Troupes non comprises dans les organizations,’ or
‘troupes hors ligne,’ i. e. artillery, engineers, sappers, gendarmerie à
cheval, train, équipages militaires, &c. = 9,000. Gross total about
122,367.

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[ . . . ] eratque tam turpe Musicam nescire quam litteras [from De Musica, by

1 Framing a Choral Curriculum Based on the Kodály Philosophy • 1

6 Music Theory and Sight-​Reading Sequence for Level 1 Choirs • 138

7 Music Theory and Sight-​Reading Sequence for Level 2 Choirs • 182

8 Music Theory and Sight-​Reading Sequence for Level 3 Choirs • 218

9 An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-​Reading in the Choral Rehearsal • 284

10 Scaffolding a Teaching Strategy for Choral Music • 311

11 Putting It All Together: Choral Strategies and Rehearsal Plans • 332

12 Evaluation and Assessment in the Choral Rehearsal • 378

There is a consensus in the field of twenty-​first-​century choral music education that it

Chapter 2: Launching the Academic Year for Beginning,

Chapter 3: Laying the Foundations of Choral Singing Through

Chapter 4: Sequencing Part-​Work Skills in the Choral

Chapter 5: Sound Ways to Develop Music Theory Skills Through

Chapter 6: Music Theory and Sight-​Reading Sequence for

Chapter 7: Music Theory and Sight-​Reading for Level 2 Choirs

Chapter 8: Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for

Chapter 9: An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-​Reading

Chapter 10: Scaffolding a Teaching Strategy for Choral Music

Chapter 11: Putting It All Together: Choral Strategies and

Chapter 12: Evaluation and Assessment in the Choral Rehearsal

Practical Choral Curriculum and Choral Rehearsal Plan

Teaching the Skill of In-​tune Singing with Solfège Syllables

Sequential Development of Part-​Work Skills

Teaching Music Theory Via Performance Through Sound Analysis

Culturally Appropriate Models for Teaching Choral Repertoire

Teaching Repertoire from Medieval Music to Twenty-​First-​

Practical Choral Rehearsal Plans

An Accompanying Sight-​Reading Book

Who Should Read This book?

Using Choral Artistry

Applying the Kodály Concept in the Choral Rehearsal

Integrating of Folk Songs in the Choral Rehearsal

Teaching Music Theory and Sight-​Reading

Teaching Part-​work Skills

Selecting and Teaching Choral Repertoire Using Performance

Framing a Choral Curriculum Based

6 Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for Level 1 Choirs • 138

7 Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for Level 2 Choirs • 182

8 Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for Level 3 Choirs • 218

9 An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-Reading in the Choral Rehearsal • 284

There is a consensus in the field of twenty-first-century choral music education that it

Chapter 4: Sequencing Part-Work Skills in the Choral

Chapter 6: Music Theory and Sight-Reading Sequence for

Chapter 7: Music Theory and Sight-Reading for Level 2 Choirs

Chapter 9: An Organic Approach to Teaching Sight-Reading

Teaching the Skill of In-tune Singing with Solfège Syllables

Sequential Development of Part-Work Skills

Teaching Repertoire from Medieval Music to Twenty-First-

An Accompanying Sight-Reading Book

Teaching Music Theory and Sight-Reading

Teaching Part-work Skills

Reading and Sight-Reading Goals for

Sample reading and sight-reading goals include the following:

Recruitment and Community-Building Goals for