Sets, Relation & Functions

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 Definition
Null Set

A set is a well-defined
A set which doesn’t contain
collection of objects
any element is called an
empty or null or void set

Finite Set & Infinite Set

Equal Sets
Types of
A set which is empty or
consists of a definite Sets Two sets A and B are said
number of elements is to be equal if they have
called finite otherwise, the exactly the same elements
set is called infinite and we write A = B

Power Sets
Singleton Set
Subset

A set which is said to be a

The set of all subsets of a set A is If a set A has only one element,
subset of a set B if every
element of A is also an called the power set of A. It is we call it a singleton set. Set of
element of B denoted by P(A). In P(A), every all even prime numbers-(2) is a
element is a set singleton set
 De-Morgan’s Law Complement of a Set

Intersection of Sets Let U be the universal set and A a subset

De-Morgan’s Laws:
of U. Then the complement of A is the set
(i) (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
of all elements of U which are noth the
The intersection of two sets (ii) (A ∩ B”’ = A’ ∪ B’
elements of A. symbolically, we write A’
A and B is the set of all to denote the complement of A with
those elements which respect to U. Thus,
belong to both A and B. A’ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
Symbolically, we write So A’ = U - A
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
B} Operations
on Sets
Difference Union of Sets
of Sets
Let A and B any two sets. The union of A
The difference of the sets A and B is the set which consists of all the
and B in this order is the set elements of A and all the elements of B,
of elements which belong to A the common elements being taken only
but not to B. Symbolically, we once. The symbol ‘U’ is used to denote
write A-B and read as “A the union. Symbolically, we write A to B
animus B” and usually read as ‘A and B’
 Types of Relations ANTI SYMMETRIC RELATION

If (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, for all a, b ∈ A, then

a=b
EMPTY RELATION
TRANSITIVE RELATION
Relation R in Set A is Empty if no element of A is
related to any element of A ; R = ϕ ⊂ A × A (a, b) ∈ R & (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R, for all
a, b, c ∈ A
UNIVERSAL RELATION
EQUIVALENCE RELATION
When each element of A is related to every
element of A in a relation R ; R = A × A
A relation R in A when R is reflexive,
Symmetric & Transitive
SYMMETRIC RELATION
EQUIVALENCE CLASS
If (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R, for all a, b ∈ A
All subsets of equivalent relation
● All elements of Ai are related to each
REFLEXIVE RELATION other, for all i
● No element of Ai is related to any element
(a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A of Aj, for all i ≠ J ϕ
● U Ai = A and Ai ∩ Aj = ϕ ; i ≠ j
 Types of Relations IRREFLEXIVE

R is irreflexive iff ∀ a ∈ ((a, a) ∉ R)

IDENTITY RELATION
PARTIAL ORDER RELATION
A relation in which each element is related to
itself only. I = {(a, a), a ∈ A} R is a partial order, if R is Reflexive,
Antisymmetric and Transitive.
INVERSE RELATION
ASYMMETRIC RELATION
Inverse relation of R from A to B, denoted by R-1,
is a relation from B to A is defined by (x, y) ∈ R ⇒ (y, x) ∉ R
R-1 = {(b, a), : (a, b) ∈ R}.
 Properties Counting of Relation
1. R is not reflexive does not imply R is irreflexive. ● Number of relations from set A to B = 2mn, where |A| = m,
Counter example:
|B| = n
A = {1, 2, 3}, R = {(1, 1)}
● Number of identity relation on a set with ‘n’ elements = 1
2. R is asymmetric implies that R is irreflexive. By
definition, for all a, b ∈ A, ● Number of reflexive relation set on a set with ‘n’ elements =
(a, b), ∈ R and (b, a) ∉ R. This implies that for all 2n(n-1)
(a, b) ∈ R, a ≠ b Thus, for all a ∈ A, ● Number of symmetric relation set on a set with ‘n’ elements =
(a, a) ∉ R Therefore, R is irreflexive. 2n(n+1)/2
3. R is not symmetric does not imply r is ● The number of antisymmetric binary relations possible on A
antisymmetric counter example: is
A = {1, 2, 3}, R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2)} ● The number of binary relation on A which are both symmetric
4. R is not symmetric does not imply R is and antisymmetric is 2n.
asymmetric. Counter example: ● The number of binary relation on A which are both symmetric
A = {1, 2, 3}, R = {(1, 2), (2, 2)} and asymmetric is 1.
5. R is not antisymmetric does not imply R is ● The number of binary relation which are both relation which
symmetric. Counter example: are both reflexive and antisymmetric on the set Aa is
A = {1, 2, 3}, R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2)}
● The number of asymmetric binary relation possible on the set
6. R is reflexive implies that R is not asymmetric. By A is
definition, for all a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R. ● There are at least 2n transitive relations (lower bound) and at
This implies that, both (a, b) and (b, a) are in R most (upper bound)
when a = b. Thus, R is not asymmetric.
 Operation on Relations
3. R1 ∪ R2 = {(a, b) | (a, b) ∈ R1 and (a, b) ∈
1. R1 - R2 = {(a, b) | (a, b) ∈ R1 and (a, b) ∉ R2} R2}
2. R2 - R1 = {(a, b) | (a, b) ∈ R2 and (a, b) ∉ R1} 4. R1 ∩ R2 = {(a, b) | (a, b) ∈ R1 and (a, b) ∈
R2}

Properties

1) If R1 and R2 are reflexive and symmetric, then R1 ∪ R2 4) If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on A,
is reflexive, and symmetric. ● R1 - R2is not an equivalence relation (reflexivity
fails).
2) If R1 is transitive and R2 is transitive, then R1 ∪ R2
● R1 - R2 is not a partial order (since R1 - R2 is not
need not be transitive.
reflexive).
Counter example: Let A = {1, 2} such that
● R1 ⨁ R2 = R1 ∪ R2 - (R1 ∩ R2) is neither
R1 = {(1, 2)} and R2 = {(2, 1)}. R1 ∪ R2 = {(1, 2), (2, 1)}
equivalence relation nor partial order (reflexivity
and (1, 1) ∉ R1 ∪ R2 implies that R1 ∪ R2 is not
fails)
Transitive.
5) The union of two equivalence relation on a set is not
3) If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations, then R1 ∩ R2 is
necessarily an equivalence relation on the set.
an equivalence relation.
6) The inverse of a equivalence relation R is an
equivalence relation.
 Composition of Relations Equivalence Class
Let R1 ⊆ A × B and R2 ⊆ B × C, Composition of R2 on Equivalence class of a ∈ A is defined as [a] = {x | (x, a) ∈ R}, that
R1, denoted as R1 R2 or simply R1 R2 is is all the elements related to a under the relation R.
R1 R2 = {(a, c) | a ∈ A, c ∈ C ^ ∃ b ∈ B such that Example
((a, b) ∈ R1, (b, c) ∈ R2)} E = Even integers, O = Odd integers
NOTE (i) All elements of E are related to each other and all elements of
R1 (R2 ∩ R3) ⊂ R1 R2 ∩ R1 R3 O are related to each other.
R1 (R2 ∪ R3) = R1 R2 ∪ R1 R3 (ii) No element of E is related to any element of O and vice-versa.
R1 ⊆ A × B, R2 ⊆ B × C, R3 ⊆ C × D.(R1R2)R3 = R1 (R2R3) (iii) E and O are disjoint and Z = E ∪ O
-1
(R1oR2) = R2-1 oR1-1 The subset E is called the equivalence class containing
zero and is denoted by [0].
Properties: Consider an equivalence relation R defined
on a set A.
4. For any two equivalence class [a] and [b], either [a] = [b] or [a]
∩ [b] = ϕ
2. For every a, b ∈ A such that a ∈ [b], a ∉ b it follows 5. For all a, b ∈ A, if a ∈ [b] then b ∈ [a]
that [a] = [b] 6. For all a, b, c ∈ A, if a ∈ [b] and b ∈ [c], then a ∈ [c]
7. For all a ∈ A, [a] ≠ ϕ
 Classification of
Functions
1. Constant Function
Functions f(x) = k, k is a constant.

2. Identity Function
The function y = f(x) = x, ∀ x ∈ R
Logarithmic Exponential Here domain & Range both R

function Function
3. Polynomial function
y = f(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn-1 + … + an n is non
negative integer, a1 are real constants.
Given a0 ≠ 0, n is the degree of polynomial
f(x) = logax[a > 0, a ≠ 1] f(x) = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1. function
There are two polynomial functions,
f(x) = 1 + xn & f(x) = 1 - xn satisfying the
relation: f(x) ⋅ f(1/x) - f(x) + f(1/x) where ‘n’
is a positive integer.

4. Rational Function
It is defined as the ratio of two polynomials.
Domain = (0, ∞), Range = R Domain = R, Rang = (0, ∞) f(x) = P(x)/Q(x) provided Q(x) ≠ 0
Dom {f(x)} is all real numbers except when
denominator is zero [i.e., Q(x) ≠ 0]
 Properties of Log
Functions Functions

Logarithmic
function
5.

6.

1. loga(xy) = loga|x| + loga|y|, where a > 0, a ≠ 1 and xy > 0 7. If a > 1, then the values of f(x) = logax increase with the
2. increase in x. I.e. x < y ⇔ loga x < loga y

3. Also,
4. logn(xn) = n loga |x|, where a > 0, a ≠ 1 and xn > 0
Functions
Sine function Tangent function Cosecant function

Trigonometric
Functions
f(x) = sin x f(x) = tan x f(x) = cosec x
Dom (f) = R Dom (f) = R - {(2n + I)π/2, n∈ z Dom (f) = R - {mR, n e z}
Ran (f) = [-1, 1] Ran (f) = R Ran (f) = R - (-1, 1)

Cosine function Secant function Cotangent function

f(x) = cos x f(x) = sec x f(x) = cot x

Dom (f) = R Dom (s) = R - {(2n + 1)π/2|n∈Z} Dom (f) = R - {nπ | n e z}
Ran (f) = [-1, 1] Ran (f) = R - (-1, 1) Ran (f) = R
 Absolute Value
Functions Function

1. |x|2 = x2 2. √x2 = |x| 3. |x| = max {-x, x} 4. -|x| = min {-x, x}

5. 6. 7. |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|

8. |x + y| = |x| + |y| if xy > 0 9. |x - y| = |x| + |y| if xy ≤ 0 10. |x| ≥ a (is -ve) x ∈ R

11. a < |x|< b ⇒ b ≤ x ≤ -a or a ≤ x ≤ b. x ∈ [-b, -a] ∪ [a,

b]
Functions Signum Function

Greatest Integer f(x) = [x] the integral part of x, which

Function is nearest & smaller integer

1. [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1

2. x - 1 < [x] < x 6. [x] ≤ n ⇔ x < n + 1, n ∈

7. [x] < n ⇔ x < n 8.
I

3. I ≤ x < I + I ⇒ [x] = I

9. 10. [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1

4.

11.
5.
 Fractional Part Odd and Even
Functions Function Function

1. if f(-x) =-f(x) ∀ x ∈R then f is an odd function, odd

y = {x} fractional past of x. functions are symmetrical in opposite quadrants or
y = {x} = x - [x] about origin.

2. If f(-x) = f(x). then even. It is symmetric about y axis.

1. {x} = x, 0 ≤ x <1. Properties 1. Product of two odd or two even function is an even
function.

2. {x} = 0, x ∈ 1 2. Product of odd & even function is an odd function.

3. Every function can be expressed as the sum of an

3. {-x} = 1- {x}, x ∉ I even and odd function, i.e,

4. {x ± integer} = {x} 4. Derivative of an odd function is an even function

and of an even is odd.
 f(x) is periodic if f(x + T) = f(x) ∀ x ∈ R , T = period

Functions Periodic Function

Properties of periodic functions

If f(x) is periodic with period T, then

1. c. f(x) is periodic with period T

2. f(x + c) is periodic with period T.

3. f(x) ± c is periodic with period T.

4. kf (cx + d) has period T/|c| period is only affected by

coefficient of x.
 Inverse of a function
Functions Number of Functions

g : B → A , f(x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x ∀ x ∈ A
● Total no of functions = mn and y ∈ B.

● Number of One to one functions = Then g is inverse of f

1. Inverse of a bijection is unique.
2. If f : A ➝ B is a bijection g : B ➝ A is
● No. of many one functions =
the inverse of f, then fog = IB gof = IA,
● No. of constant function = m.
where IA & IB are identity function
3. The inverse of a bijection is also a

● No. of onto function = bijection (gof)-1 = g-1 o g-1.

● No. of one-to-one onto functions = n!, if m = n Hyperbolic Functions

 Functions

Elementary
Transformation of graphs

Drawing the graph of Drawing graph of y = f(|x|) from the Drawing graph of |y| = f(x) from the
y = |f(x)| from the known graph of y = f(x). know m graph of y = f(x).

Remove portion that lies below x axis.

Neglect the curve for x<0 & take the Plot the remaining portion of the graph
images of curve for x 0 about y axis. & also its mirror image in x-axis.
Functions

Things to Remember
Composition of Functions
Let f : A → B & g : B → C be two functions. Then the
composition of f & g, denoted by gof, is defined as the Types of Functions
function gof : A → C given by
gof (x) = g(f(x)), ∀ x ∈ A

Theorem: If f : X → Y, Functions One-one (injective)

f : x 🠆 y is one-one if f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒
g:Y→Z&h:Z→S
are functions, then ho(gof) = (hog)of x1, = x2 ∀ x1, x2 ∈ x. Otherwise, f
If gof is one-one ⇒ f is one-one is many-one, f1 is one-one.
If gof is onto ⇒ g is onto
If f : X → Y is a function such that there exists a
function g : Y → X such that
gof = Ix & fog = Iy, then f must be one-one and onto. Onto (surjective)
f : x 🠆 y is onto it for energy y
∈ Y, ∃ x ∈ X S.t. f(x) = y, f2
Functional Equation is onto.
(a) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) ⇒ f(x) = K ln x
(b) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) ⇒ f(x) = xn Bijective
(c) f(x + y) = f(x) × f(y) ⇒ f(x) = ax f : x 🠆 y is both one-one and
(d) f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) ⇒ f(x) = Kx onto, then f is bijective. F3 is
bijective.
(e) and f(x) is a

polynomial then f(x) = ±xn + 1

Sets, Relation & Functions

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