QUANTUM COMPUTING

Dr.SGN 1
Introduction to Quantum Computing
Quantum computing represents a revolutionary paradigm shift in the field of
computation, promising to solve problems that are currently intractable for
classical computers. By leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics, quantum
computers can process and store information in fundamentally new ways, leading
to potentially exponential speedups for certain types of computations.

Classical vs. Quantum Computers:

Classical computers, which have been the backbone of computational technology
for decades, operate using bits as the basic unit of information. Each bit can be in
one of two states, 0 or 1. In contrast, quantum computers use quantum bits or
qubits. A qubit can exist not just in the states corresponding to classical bits but
also in a superposition of these states, meaning it can be 0, 1, or both
simultaneously with certain probabilities.
Dr.SGN 2
Principles of Quantum Mechanics:
Quantum computing harnesses several key principles of quantum mechanics:
 Superposition: This principle allows qubits to be in a combination of states
simultaneously, enabling a quantum computer to process a vast number of
possibilities at once.
 Entanglement: A unique quantum phenomenon where the state of one qubit is
directly related to the state of another, no matter the distance between them.
This interconnectedness can be exploited to perform complex calculations
more efficiently than classical computers.
 Quantum Interference: Quantum algorithms often rely on interference to
amplify the probability of correct answers and cancel out incorrect ones,
enhancing computational accuracy and efficiency.

Dr.SGN 3
Current State and Challenges:
Quantum computing is still in its nascent stages, with practical, large-scale quantum
computers yet to be realized. Current quantum processors, often referred to as Noisy
Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) devices, are limited by the number of qubits and the
presence of quantum noise and decoherence, which affect computation accuracy.
Researchers are actively working on developing error correction methods, improving qubit
coherence times, and scaling up quantum systems. Achieving fault-tolerant quantum
computing, where errors can be detected and corrected in real-time, remains a significant
milestone.

Dr.SGN 4
Applications and Future Prospects:
Despite its challenges, quantum computing holds immense potential across
various fields:
 Cryptography: Quantum computers could break existing cryptographic
codes, necessitating the development of quantum-resistant cryptography.
 Material Science: Quantum simulations could revolutionize the design of new
materials and drugs by accurately modeling molecular interactions.
 Optimization Problems: Quantum algorithms could provide significant
speedups for complex optimization problems in logistics, finance, and
artificial intelligence.

Dr.SGN 5
 Differences from Classical Computing:
•Data Representation:
• Classical computers use bits as the smallest unit of data, which can be either 0 or 1.
• Quantum computers use qubits, which can be in a state of 0, 1, or any superposition of these
states.
•Computation:
• Classical computers perform operations sequentially on bits using classical logic gates.
• Quantum computers perform operations on qubits using quantum gates, which can process
multiple possibilities simultaneously.

Advantages of Quantum Computing:

1.Exponential Speedup for Certain Problems:
1. Example: Quantum computers can solve specific problems much faster than classical computers. For
instance, Shor's algorithm can factor large integers exponentially faster than the best-known classical
algorithms. This has significant implications for cryptography and security.

Dr.SGN 6
1.Efficient Simulation of Quantum Systems:
1. Example: Quantum computers can simulate quantum systems efficiently, which is extremely
challenging for classical computers. This is particularly useful in fields like chemistry and
material science, where understanding molecular and atomic interactions is crucial. Quantum
simulations can lead to breakthroughs in drug discovery and new materials.
2.Optimization Problems:
1. Example: Quantum computing can provide more efficient solutions to complex optimization
problems found in logistics, finance, and machine learning. Quantum algorithms like the
Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) can find approximate solutions to
optimization problems faster than classical algorithms.

Dr.SGN 7
Qubits: The Building Blocks of Quantum Computing
Introduction: Qubits, or quantum bits, are the fundamental units of information in quantum
computing. Unlike classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1, qubits leverage the principles of
quantum mechanics to exist in a superposition of both states simultaneously. This unique
property, along with entanglement and quantum interference, enables qubits to perform
complex computations more efficiently than classical bits.
 Definition:
o A qubit is the basic unit of quantum information.
o A qubit, or quantum bit, is the fundamental unit of quantum information, analogous to
a bit in classical computing.
o Unlike classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1, qubits can exist in a superposition of
both states simultaneously.
o Unlike classical bits, qubits can exist in a state of superposition, represented as |ψ =
α|0 + β|1 , where α and β are complexDr.SGN
numbers with |α|² + |β|² = 1. 8
Key Properties of Qubits:
1. Superposition: A qubit can be in a state |0 , a state |1 , or any quantum superposition of these
states. Mathematically, this is represented as |ψ = α|0 + β|1 , where α and β are complex
numbers that describe the probability amplitudes of the qubit being in states |0 and |1 ,
respectively. The probabilities are given by |α|² and |β|², and the total probability must equal 1
(|α|² + |β|² = 1).
2. Entanglement: When two or more qubits become entangled, the state of one qubit cannot be
described independently of the state of the other qubits. Entanglement is a powerful property
that allows quantum computers to perform certain calculations much faster than classical
computers. For example, measuring one qubit in an entangled pair instantaneously determines
the state of the other, regardless of the distance between them.
3. Quantum Interference: Quantum interference allows qubits to interfere with each other in
ways that can amplify the probability of correct solutions while canceling out incorrect ones.
This principle is used in many quantum algorithms to enhance computational efficiency and
Dr.SGN 9
accuracy.
Physical Realizations of Qubits:
Qubits can be physically realized in various ways, each with its own advantages and challenges. Some of the most common
implementations include:
1. Superconducting Qubits:
o Superconducting circuits, such as Josephson junctions, are widely used in quantum computers developed by companies like
IBM and Google. These qubits operate at extremely low temperatures, where superconductivity enables low-loss and coherent
quantum states.
2. Trapped Ions:
o Individual ions trapped in electromagnetic fields can be used as qubits. Quantum information is stored in the internal states of
the ions, and entanglement is achieved through controlled interactions using laser pulses.
3. Topological Qubits:
o These qubits are based on anyons, exotic particles that exist in two-dimensional space. Topological qubits are inherently
protected from certain types of quantum noise, potentially leading to more robust and error-resistant quantum computations.
4. Quantum Dots:
o Semiconductor quantum dots confine electrons or holes in three-dimensional space, and their quantum states can be
manipulated to function as qubits. This technology leverages existing semiconductor fabrication techniques.
5. Photonic Qubits:
o Information can be encoded in the quantum states of photons, such as polarization states. Photonic qubits are ideal for
Dr.SGN 10
quantum communication and networking due to their speed and low interaction with the environment.
Dr.SGN 11
Dr.SGN 12
Dr.SGN 13
Challenges and Future Directions:
While qubits offer immense potential, there are several challenges to be addressed in quantum
computing:
 Decoherence and Noise: Qubits are highly susceptible to interactions with their environment,
leading to decoherence and errors. Developing error correction techniques and more stable qubit
designs is crucial.
 Scalability: Building large-scale quantum computers requires scalable qubit architectures and
reliable inter-qubit communication.
 Quantum Algorithms: Designing efficient quantum algorithms that outperform classical
counterparts for practical problems is an ongoing area of research.

Dr.SGN 14
Superposition:
 Concept:
o Superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. It allows a quantum
system to be in multiple states at once.
o For a single qubit, this means it can be in a state |0 , a state |1 , or any quantum
superposition of these states.
 Mathematical Representation:
o A qubit in superposition is represented as:
ψ = α 0 +β 1
o Here, |ψ is the state of the qubit, |0 and |1 are the basis states, and α and β are complex
numbers called probability amplitudes.
o The probabilities of measuring the qubit in states |0 or |1 are given by |α|² and |β|²,
respectively, with the condition that |α|² + |β|² = 1.
Dr.SGN 15
Visualization of Superposition:
 Bloch Sphere:
o The state of a qubit can be visualized on the Bloch sphere, a unit sphere where any
point on the surface represents a possible qubit state.
o The north and south poles of the sphere represent the classical states |0 and |1 ,
respectively.
o Superpositions are represented by points on the surface of the sphere between these
poles.

Dr.SGN 16
Dr.SGN 17
Dr.SGN 18
Dr.SGN 19
Dr.SGN 20
Entanglement:
 Definition:
o Entanglement is a quantum phenomenon where the quantum states of two or more
particles become correlated.
o When qubits are entangled, the measurement of one qubit instantly determines the state
of the other, no matter how far apart they are.
 Importance:
o Entanglement is crucial for quantum computing, allowing for complex quantum
operations and enabling quantum communication protocols like quantum teleportation.
 Example:
o Consider two qubits A and B in an entangled state: |ψ = (1/√2)(|00 + |11 ). Measuring
A in state |0 immediately collapses B into state |0 , and measuring A in state |1
collapses B into state |1 .
Dr.SGN 21
Quantum Teleportation
1. Introduction to Quantum Teleportation:
Quantum teleportation is a process by which the quantum state of a particle (qubit) is transmitted from one location to another,
without physically transferring the particle itself. This concept leverages the principles of quantum entanglement and classical
communication.
 Concept:
o Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a qubit is transferred from one location to another, without
physically moving the qubit itself.
o Relies on entanglement and classical communication.
 Steps:
o Preparation: Create an entangled pair of qubits, A and B. Place qubit A with Alice and qubit B with Bob.
o Bell Measurement: Alice performs a Bell-state measurement on qubit A and the qubit to be teleported (qubit X),
collapsing them into an entangled state.
o Classical Communication: Alice sends the result of her measurement to Bob using classical communication.
o State Reconstruction: Bob applies a corresponding quantum gate to his qubit B based on Alice’s message,
transforming qubit B into the original state of qubit X.
 Implications:
o Quantum teleportation demonstrates the potential for secure quantum communication and quantum networks.
Dr.SGN 22
Key Concepts:
 Quantum Entanglement:
o Entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more qubits become linked, such that the state of
one qubit directly affects the state of the other, no matter the distance between them.
o An entangled state for two qubits A and B can be represented as:
∣ψAB⟩ = (1/2) (∣00⟩+∣11⟩)
 Classical Communication:
o While entanglement provides the basis for the quantum state transfer, classical communication is
necessary to complete the process. Information about the measurement outcomes must be sent
from the sender (Alice) to the receiver (Bob).

Dr.SGN 23
The Quantum Teleportation Protocol:
 Preparation:
o Alice and Bob share a pair of entangled qubits, A (with Alice) and B (with Bob).
 Step-by-Step Process:
o Alice's Qubits:
 Alice has an unknown qubit |ψ⟩ she wishes to teleport to Bob.
 This qubit |ψ⟩ can be expressed as:
∣ψ⟩ = α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩
o Entangled Pair:
 Alice and Bob share an entangled pair in the state:

 The combined state of Alice's qubit and the entangled pair is:

Dr.SGN 24
o Bell-State Measurement:
 Alice performs a Bell-state measurement on her unknown qubit and her half of the entangled pair. This
projects the combined state into one of the four Bell states, collapsing the system.
 The measurement entangles the unknown qubit with Alice’s part of the entangled pair and disentangles
Bob’s qubit.
o Classical Communication:
 Alice sends the result of her Bell-state measurement (two classical bits of information) to Bob.
o Bob’s Reconstruction:
 Based on Alice's measurement result, Bob applies one of the four possible unitary operations (I, X, Y,
Z) to his qubit to transform it into the original state |ψ⟩.
 The operations correspond to the correction needed to match Bob’s qubit state to the initial state of
Alice’s qubit.

Dr.SGN 25