INTRODUCTION

The use of fire almost certainly developed in four stages.

First by observation, people pragmatic about them natural sources of fire, such as
volcanoes and trees set afire by lightning.

Second, they obtained fire from natural sources and used it for warmth, light, and
protection from predators.

Third, they learned to generate fire whenever they desire.

Finally, they learned to manage and control fire for use in smelting metal ore, in
baking pottery, and in numerous other ways to help create new technologies and make
life more comfortable.

Fire is basically heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of oxygen, or
in some cases gaseous chlorine, with other materials.

The light is in the form of flame, which is composed of radiant particles of the
burning material and certain gaseous products that are glowing at the temperature
of the burning material.

The conditions essential for the existence of fire are the presence of a
combustible material, a temperature high enough to cause combustion known as the
ignition temperature and the presence of enough oxygen or chlorine to enable rapid
combustion to continue.

Fire has been produced by two primary methods, friction and percussion.

In the friction method, friction increases the temperature of a combustible

material from kindling to ignition temperature.

The percussion method generates a spark to set kindling afire.

Fire may also be generated by using a lens or curved reflector to focus and
converge the rays of the sun on combustible material.

Arson investigation occurs in different order than the usual criminal

investigation. It is the job of the arson investigator to analyze all information
and act swiftly in conducting interviews since fire usually destroys physical
evidences making witnesses much more significant. Part investigative science
and part forensic science, the entire field of arson investigation encompasses a
variety of people in various expertise such as safety professionals, firemen,
forensic chemists, investigators and criminalists. Arson investigators sometimes
see themselves as counterparts to homicide investigators.

THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

Fire is a fundamental chemical reaction based on oxidation; all forms of fire are
subtypes of combustion. Fire was derived form the Greek word pyra which means
glowing ember is the active principle of burning characterized by heat light and
combustion. Although useful to man, fire may be used as a means to commit crimes,
bringing forth destruction of lives and properties.

Why fires should be investigated?

? To determine the cause of the fire; and
? To prevent similar occurrences
What constitutes arson?
? Burning
? Malice
? Motive
? Intent

Three elements of fire of commonly known as fire triangle: The presence the
following components would result to fire:

Oxygen
?
Fuel Heat

Pyrolysis only takes place when fire has a continuous source of oxygen.

Speed can be increased by temperature; an 18 degree Fahrenheit increase in

temperature usually doubles or triples the reaction rate. Hence fire burns faster
once the environment�s temperature is raised.

Most fire will extinguish itself at less than 16% oxygen. However, it�s not a
simple matter as the external supply of oxygen.

Fire Triangle:

FUEL + OXYGEN + HEAT SOURCE = COMBUSTION

1. Fuel - The most important part of the triangle, for fuel is what burns. The
nature and properties of the fuel are essential in combating fires. It comes in
three form as solid, liquid or gas. (Solid fuel � ignition temperature; liquid
fuel- flashpoint)

Asbestos, diamond and naphthalene balls are solids which are known to have no
ignition temperature rendering them fire proof.

2. Heat- Ignition heat is a device or means to start a fire. It can be a safety

match, a lighted candle, or of more sophisticated forms such as chemical,
mechanical or electrical contrivance designed to start a blaze. In physics, heat
refers to the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another, or from
one body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature.

Heat is energy in transit; it always streams from a material or body at a higher

temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, increasing the temperature of
the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the
bodies remains constant.

3. Oxygen- It is a tasteless, odorless colorless gas which is generally found

within the Earth's atmosphere. Oxygen composes 21 percent by volume or 23.15
percent by weight of the atmosphere; 85.8 percent by weight of the oceans (88.8
percent of pure water is oxygen); and, as an element of most rocks and minerals,
46.7 percent by weight of the solid crust of the earth.

Oxygen comprises 60 percent of the human body. It is a constituent of all living

tissues; almost all plants and animals, including all humans, need oxygen, in the
free or combined state, to maintain life. It is both vital to sustain human life
and fire. Oxygen, symbol O, is slightly magnetic gaseous element. On earth, oxygen
is more plentiful than any other element. Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by the
British chemist Joseph Priestley and, separately, by the Swedish chemist Carl
Wilhelm Scheele; it was shown to be an elemental gas by the French chemist Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier in his classic experiments on combustion.

Physical properties of matter related with fires:

? Specific gravity which refers to the ratio of the weight of the liquid or the
solid substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.

? Vapor density which is the weight of the volume of pure gas opposed to the
weight of a volume of dry air with the same temperature and pressure.

? Temperature refers to the measure of the degree of thermal agitation or

disturbance of molecules.

? Vapor pressure which is the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of
the liquid at equilibrium.

? Fire point which refers to the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open

container at which vapors are developed fast enough to support uninterrupted
combustion.

? Flash point which refers to the heat at which a flammable liquid form a
vapor-air mixture that ignites.

? Kindling temperature which is also referred to as ignition temperature refers

to the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in
order to start a self-contained combustion without adding heat from other sources.

? Boiling point which is the constant heat at which vapor pressure of the
liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

Chemical properties of fire:

1. Flames which are incandescent gasses which is categorized as those:

Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:

? Non luminous flame � the color of the flame is blue due to the almost
complete combustion of the fuel and has relatively high temperature and forms no
soot deposit.

? Luminous flame � the color is orange-red due to incomplete combustion of the

fuel, has relatively lower temperature and will deposit soot to anything being
subjected to it.

Based on smoothness:

? Turbulent flames which refer to those having irregular and unsteady swirls.

? Laminar flame which refer to flames which generally follows a smooth path
through a gaseous flame.

Based on air and fuel mixture:

? Diffusion flames are manifested when fuel alone is forced through a nozzle
into the atmosphere which spread in the surrounding atmosphere forming a flammable
mixture.

? Pre-mixed flames are those observed when hydrocarbon is mixed with air before
reaching the flame zone.

Flame is a glowing body of mixed gases undergoing the process of combustion. Flames
commonly consist of a mixture of oxygen (or air) and another gas, usually such
combustible substances as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbon.

2. Endothermic reactions which refers to changes whereby heat is added or absorbed

before the reaction takes place. Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. If
stronger bonds break than are formed, heat must be absorbed from the surroundings,
and the reaction is endothermic. Spontaneous endothermic reactions are also well
known such as the dissolving of salt in water.

3. Exothermic reactions are those that give off or release energy or heat which
produces substance with less energy than the reactants.

4. Oxidation which refers to the chemical changes which combustible materials and
oxidizing agents reacts. Some reactions, such as explosions and fire, take place
swiftly. Other reactions, such as rusting, transpire slowly.

Combustion is a process of rapid oxidation or burning of a substance with

simultaneous evolution of heat and, usually, light.

Combustion products:

Smoke which is made up of minute or fine solid particles and condensed vapor
resulting from combustion.

? Black smoke with deep red litmus flames are indication that the fuel used in
the fire maybe tar, plastic, rubber or petroleum products. BLA-RED-RUBBER/PETROLEUM

? Black smoke with red and blue-green flames would specify that asphalt
shingles is used in the fire. BLAREBLUE-AS

? -Greenish yellow flame is a result when the fuel used is manganese or

chlorine. GRE-YE-MANG

? -Bright reddish-yellow flame which indicates that calcium is used. BRI-RED-

YE-CAL

? -Heavy brown smoke with bright red flames is indications that nitrogen
products were used in the fire. BROBRI-RED-NIT

? -White smoke with bright red flames indicates that magnesium is used. WHIRE-
MAG

? Lavender or purple flames would show that potassium was used in the fire as
fuel. LA-PU-PO

Fire gases are gases which remain when the products of combustion are cooled to
normal temperature.

Flames are incandescent gases which accompanies rapid oxidation of any combustible
material.

Heat which is always measured as high temperature is a normal result of combustion.

Three kinds of fire:

1. Providential- caused by acts of God. This kind of fire can never be prevented as
usually hard to control. It comes in the form of lightning bolts, erupting
volcanoes or as a result of tremors.
2. Accidental- it is caused mostly by human error and negligence. Such as smoking
in bed, defective LPG containers, faulty electrical wiring, leaving plugged
electrical appliances.

3. Intentional- this is known as incidiarism or classified as Arson. This kind of

fire is set on purpose either to collect insurance, cover-up another crime or
personal/business rivalry.

Three phases of fire:

1. Initial- This is the beginning of fire. The product of pyrolysis is mainly water
vapor and carbon dioxide. The base area of the fire has a temperature of 400 to 800
degrees Fahrenheit. It is in this stage that fire fighting is easily controlled and
subdued.

2. Free burning- This is the acceleration of pyrolitic process. It is during this

stage that the maximum heat and destructive capabilities of fire develop. Thus
combating fire in this stage is very difficult and requires more than one
firefighter. The thermal column of fire carries destructive gases such as
combustible vapor and carbon monoxide. The base temperature of the fire is round
800 to 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit and ceiling temperature up to 1,600 degrees
Fahrenheit.

3. Smoldering- This stage is where the fire glows and the combustible materials
smolder. Flames would not be visible but a large amount of carbon monoxide is
produced. This is the reason why masks are essential in firefighting. At this point
back draft may occur, wherein the sudden introduction of oxygen with superheated
fuel under pressure will cause an explosion. Another threat to those at the fire
scene is the presence of carbon monoxide which at some levels may cause death to
those exposed to it.

Fire behavior: Fire behavior such as thermal balance and thermal imbalance are
those activities wherein the fireman and investigators should be acquainted or
familiar with.

? Thermal balance refers to the natural condition created by the fire or the
normal movement of fire, smoke and fire gases within a structure or building.

? Thermal imbalance refers to those turbulent circulations of steam and smoke

which replaces the normal flow of the products of combustion. Hot spots may develop
during the extinguishment of the fire upsetting the thermal balance; such holes
produced may mislead the investigator to believe that the fire originated at that
location.

HEAT

Heat is produced from the breaking and formation of chemical bonds. In a chemical
reaction, atoms are not lost but merely restructured. Molecules absorb energy when
their chemical bonds are reformed.

Aside from the sun, there are four known sources of heat, namely: Chemical,
Electrical, Nuclear and Mechanical.

Heat Units:

1. Calorie, the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of
water 1�C, it is measured at 15� to 16� C. 1 BTU = 252 calories.
2. BTU, British Thermal Unit refers to the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water 1�F.

3. Specific heat known as thermal capacity of a substance this refers to the

number of BTU needed to raise the temperature of one pound of a substance 1�F or
the number of calories to raise one gram 1� C. Except for water all substances have
specific heat less than its density.

4. Latent heat refers to the amount of heat absorbed by a substance when a

substance transforms from solid to a liquid, and from a liquid to gas. On the other
hand, heat is released during the conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to solid.

5. Heat of fusion is the quantity of heat necessary to convert solid to liquid.

6. Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat absorbed when a substance is

converted from liquid to gas.

Heat Transfer is a process by which energy in the form of heat is exchanged between
bodies or parts of the same body at different temperatures.

Conduction � Which refers to the passage of heat energy from particle to particle
in a substance.

Convection � Usually generated by intense fire it refers to heat travel in an

upward movement. Heat moves by convection by moving from one molecule to another
creating a thermal column called convection currents which circulates and rise.
Convection is a means by which heat is transformed by a circulating medium either
gas or a liquid.

Radiation � Heat transfer even when separated by a vacuum. Radiation is a term

commonly applied to all kinds of electromagnetic-wave phenomena. The process in
which energy such as heat and rays of light is sent out from atoms and molecules as
they undergo internal alteration. Radiation energy travels in a straight line with
the speed of light.

Heat Measurement

The sensation of warmth or coldness of a matter on contact is determined by the

property known as temperature.

A thermometer consists of a tube filled partially with liquid measures the

expansion and contraction of the liquid with changes on temperature. The tube is
calibrated to allow the reading of the level of the liquid in degrees of a
temperature scale.

Fahrenheit degree �F is 1/180 the difference between the melting point of ice and
the boiling point of water. In the Fahrenheit scale, used in English-speaking
countries for purposes other than scientific work and based on the mercury
thermometer the melting point of ice is 32� F while boiling point of water is 212�
F.

Centigrade also known as Celsius degree �C is 1/100 the difference between the
temperatures of meting ice and boiling water at one atmospheric pressure. On the
centigrade scale the boiling point of water is 100� C and the melting point of ice
is at 0� C. Celcius scale is widely used throughout the world, particularly for
scientific work, although it was superseded officially in 1950 by the international
temperature scale.
Absolute or Kelvin �A or �K is the same scale as Celsius degree but the boiling
point of water is 373 and the melting point of ice is at 273. . In the Kelvin
scale, the most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale, zero is defined as
the absolute zero of temperature, that is, -273.15� C, or -459.67� F.

Another scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point is the Rankine scale, in
which each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit
scale. The freezing point of water on the Rankine scale is 492� R, and the boiling
point is 672� R.

ARSON INVESTIGATION

Arson investigation starts with the fire itself and the observation of the first
responders usually the firemen.

In a fire involving arson, the fire-setter will have altered with one or more of
the factors in the fire triangle. The arsonist may increase the fuel load by
introducing flammable material or by adding accelerants such as kerosene, alcohol
or gasoline which may be easily accessible. The arsonist may increase the oxygen
content of a structure by opening the windows or punching holes in the walls and
ceilings.

An arson fire necessitates the introduction of heat source that can be as simple as
a match or as complex as chemicals with very low ignition temperatures. By
description a fire is considered an arson fire when all other providential and
accidental cause has been ruled out. To state that the cause of the fire was arson
and therefore deliberate, the investigator must have adequate evidence that one of
the factors in the fire triangle was tampered.

Classes of fire:

Class A � (green) In a class A fires, the fuel is comprised of normal

combustible materials such as wood, paper, fibers, draperies and trash. It requires
saturation by water or water fog.

Class B � (red/maroon) In class B fires, the fuel is flammable liquid such as

gasoline, kerosene, cleaning fluids, grease and alcohol. In combating such fires,
the flammable liquids must be smothered to deprive them of oxygen, hence foam
extinguishers and CO2 may be utilized.

Class C � (blue) Class C fires are those which start with live electrical wires,
equipment, electrical appliances. It is commonly known as electrical fires. It is
easily extinguished by a non-conducting agent such as CO2 and dry chemicals.

Class D � (yellow) this type of fire are rare, and usually occurring in the
manufacturing facilities, since the combustible material are certain metals such as
potassium and magnesium. It can be extinguished by using dry powder ABC chemical,
baking soda or sand.

Proof in arson cases: Since physical evidence is hard to obtain by the fact that
most if not all of the evidence is destroyed or burned the corpus delicti or the
fact that a crime was committed as well as the identity of the fire setter or
arsonist must be established. Corpus delicti is established by: Burning, Criminal
design may be proved by the presence of incendiary devices to show the fire was not
accidental, and Evidence of intent
Motives of arsonists:

1. Economic gain : To profit by committing insurance fraud; Desire on the part of a

businessman to dispose merchandise; To cover up business failure; To increase
rentals; or To avoid settlements and impending liquidation.

2. Concealment of a crime is usually done to hide the corpus delicti in cases

involving robbery, homicide and murder in an attempt to mislead police
investigators.

3. Punitive measures to inflict injury and damage to property even death due to
revenge, hate or jealousy.

4. Intimidation it is done by saboteurs and racketeers to coerce and threaten

persons and business establishments.

5. Economic disabling is undertaken to eliminate business rivals.

6. Pyromania refers to the uncontrollable impulse or desire of a person to burn

anything without any motivation. Such persons usually do not run away from the
scene of the crime because they love watching fires and conflagration.

Procedures in tracing the origin of fire and searching for evidence:

1st step: The conduct of careful inspection of the burned building from the outside
which may reveal any external origin of the fire through burn patterns.

2nd step: Internal survey and inspection of the burned structure from the inside to
determine the origin of the fire. At this stage the investigator has to locate the
area where there is the heaviest charring and destruction.

3rd step: Location of the point of origin of the fire by finding out where there is
most severe destruction may indicate the area of origin. The ceiling area is
usually the first location to be inspected.

4th step: Locating the inverted cone pattern where the ashes and traces under it
would reveal the kind of fuel used in the fire. Another useful indicator to the
area of origin of the fire is locations with partially melted glass or electric
light bulb. The inverted cone pattern is referred to as the fingerprint of the
fire.

Basic Lines of inquiry: The questioning must be focused to determine the following:
Origin of the fire, Motive, Identification of the fire setter. And Identification
of the other suspects.

In the investigation of a fire scene, the Bureau of Fire Protection operative and
units has sole jurisdiction over cases involving fire. The person who called the
alarm, the residents and the firemen who first responded to the scene are the most
valuable witness who may shed light as to the origin of the fire and its causes.

Tell tale signs of incendiary fires - The presence of any of the following in the
crime scene are an indication that the fire is neither providential nor accidental:

? Plants � refers to the preparation of materials used as fuel to start fires

such as rags, newspapers, plastic, clothing, fabrics wood shavings and other
combustible materials which is easily acquired.
? Trailers � A device used to spread the fire throughout the structure. The
most common trailers used are fuel oil, gasoline, and paint thinner and lighter
fluids.

? Accelerants � Refers to any combustible liquid which is used to speed up or

hasten the start of the fire.