02/10/2024s

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BUCK CONVERTERS AND LINEAR REGULATORS

Uğur Keleş
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Contents
ELECTRONIC SWITCHES...........................................................................................................7
Diodes..........................................................................................................................................7
Thyristors.....................................................................................................................................7
Transistors....................................................................................................................................8
MOSFET..................................................................................................................................8
BJT...........................................................................................................................................8
IGBT........................................................................................................................................8
Switch Selection..........................................................................................................................8
DC-DC CONVERTERS..................................................................................................................9
Linear Regulators.........................................................................................................................9
A Basic Switching Regulator.......................................................................................................9
Buck Converter..........................................................................................................................10
Analysis of the Buck Converter.............................................................................................11
Design Considerations...........................................................................................................13
LDO AND BUCK PCB DESIGN.................................................................................................14
Voltage Regulator......................................................................................................................14
Schematics.............................................................................................................................14
PCB of LDO..........................................................................................................................14
Buck Converter..........................................................................................................................15
Schematics.............................................................................................................................15
PCB of Buck Converter.........................................................................................................19
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................22
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BASIC CONCEPTS
It all starts with the will of having different voltage levels.

Let’s say we would like to get 3 volts output voltage from a 9 volts battery. The first idea is to
use the voltage divider.

V ¿∗R L 9 V
V out = = =3 V
2 R L+ R L 3

We get the result we would like to have but some problems occur:

1. If the load resistor changes, the output voltage changes except we change the 2RL
resistance accordingly.
2. The energy is dissipated as the heat. So, this circuit has low efficiency.

A solution to the first problem could be to use a transistor to be controlled so that the voltage
across it is 6 volts.

A solution to the second problem incorporates the usage of switches. Whenever a switch is open,
theoretically, and since there is no current across it, the power absorbed is zero. Whenever a
switch is closed since it becomes a short circuit, there is no voltage difference across it and the
power absorbed by it zero.
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If we close the switch one third of a period, the average value of the output voltage is one third
of the input voltage, in this case 3 volts voltage.

The waveform of the output voltage includes AC terms as well as DC terms. An ideal low-pass
filter allows the dc component of voltage the pass while removing the AC terms. The final
circuit, if everything is ideal, is 100 percent efficient.

In real world, nothing is ideal and there will be losses, but these simple circuits and definitions
are great way to grasp these concepts firmly. Thus, it builds a solid basis block to understand the
further concepts.

ELECTRONIC SWITCHES

Diodes
Diodes are simple on and off devices. When a diode turns off, the current in it decreases and
momentarily becomes negative before becoming zero. This period is called Reverse Recovery
Time.

Schottky diodes are used in low voltage applications and have voltage drop at 0.3V. The reverse
voltage is up to 100V. They turn on and off faster than P-N junction diodes.

Thyristors
They are used where control of switch turn-on is required. The switching frequencies cannot be
as high as other devices such as MOSFETs.

Triac is a thyristor that can conduct current in either direction.

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Transistors
The turn-on and turn-off are controllable. The types are BJTs, MOSFETs, IGBTs.

MOSFET
A sufficiently large gate-to-source voltage (Vgs) will turn the
device on, resulting in a small drain-to-source voltage (Vds).

In the on state, the change in Vds is linearly proportional to the

change in Id. Therefore, the on MOSFET can be modeled as an on-
state resistance called Rds(on).

BJT
The on-state for the transistor is achieved by providing sufficient
base current to drive the BJT into saturation.

If a power BJT with hfe = 20 is to carry a collector current of 60A,

for example, the base current would need to be more than 3A to put
the transistor into saturation.

IGBT
It is an integrated connection of a MOSFET and a BJT. IGBTs replace BJTs in many
applications.

Switch Selection
MOSFET generally has lower switching losses and is preferred over the BJT.
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DC-DC CONVERTERS
Linear Regulators
Before diving into converters, let’s review the concepts we discussed in the “basic concepts”
section.

I explained that to keep a constant voltage output, we can incorporate in our design a transistor
and a feedback loop. This is an example of internal operation of a linear regulator image taken
from Digikey.

It is inefficient due to the power loss in the transistor. The transistor operates in the linear region,
hence the name “Linear Regulators”.

A Basic Switching Regulator

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An efficient alternative to the linear regulator is the switching converter. In a switching converter
circuit, the transistor operates as an electronic switch by being completely on or completely off
(saturation or cutoff for a BJT or the triode and cutoff regions of a MOSFET).

Buck Converter
One way of obtaining a dc output is to insert a low-pass filter after the switch. Figure below
shows an LC low-pass filter added to the basic converter. The diode provides a path for the
inductor current when the switch is opened and is reverse-biased when the switch is closed. This
circuit is called a buck converter or a step-down converter because the output voltage is less than
the input. Here is a buck converter topology.

A way of analyzing the operation of the buck converter is to examine inductor voltage and
current. This is useful for designing the filter and analyzing circuits.

An inductor current that remains positive throughout the switching period is known as conductor
current.

DC-DC converters have the following properties when operating in the steady-state.
1. The inductor current is periodic.

i L ( t +T )=i L (t)

2. The average inductor voltage is zero.

t +T
1
V L=
T
∫ V L()d=0
t

3. The average capacitor current is zero.

t +T
1
I C=
T
∫ iC ()d=0
t
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4. In an ideal structure the power of the output is equal to the power of the source. For a
non-ideal structure losses must be added to the power of the output.

Ps =Po Ideal Ps =Po +losses Non−ideal

Analysis of the Buck Converter

Analysis of the Buck Converter begins by making these assumptions.
1. The circuit is operating in the steady state.
2. The capacitor is very large, the output voltage is held constant at voltage Vo.
3. The switching period is T; the switch is closed for time DT and open for time (1-D)T.
4. The components are real.

The key to the analysis for determining the output Vo is to examine the inductor current and
inductor voltage first for the switch closed and then for the switch open.
The net change in inductor current over one period must be zero for steady-state operation.
The average inductor voltage is zero.

Calculations

 Analysis for the Switch Closed

(
( ∆i L ) closed = L )
V s−V o
DT
 Analysis for the Switch Open

(V )
o
( ∆i L ) open=− L (1−D)T

( ∆i L ) closed + ( ∆ iL )open=¿ V o =V s D

The average inductor current must be the same as the average current in the load resistor, since
the average capacitor current must be zero for steady-state operation:

Vo
I L =I R =
R
∆i
I max=I L + =V o +
2
1 1− D
R 2 Lf ( )
∆i
I min =I L− =V o −
2
1 1−D
R 2 Lf ( )
For the preceding analysis to be valid, continuous current in the inductor must be verified.

I min =0=V o ( R1 − 1−D

2 Lf )
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(1−D ) R
Lmin = for continous current
2f

In the design of buck converter, the peak-to-peak variation in the inductor current is often used
as a design criterion.
V s −V o V o (1−D)
L= D=
∆ iL f ∆ iL f

Output Voltage Ripple

In the preceding analysis, the capacitor was assumed to be very large to keep the output voltage
constant.
In practice, the output voltage cannot be kept perfectly constant with a finite capacitance.

While the capacitor current is positive, the capacitor is charging.

Q=C V o
∆ Q=C ∆ V o
∆Q
∆ V o=
C

The change in charge ∆ Q is the area of the triangle above the time axis.

( )( )
1 T ∆ iL T ∆ i L
∆ Q= =
2 2 2 8

T ∆ i L V o (1−D)
∆ V o= = 2
8C 8 LC f

∆ V o is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage at the output. It is also useful to express the ripple as a
fraction of the output voltage.

∆ V o 1−D
=
V o 8 LC f 2
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In design, it is useful to rearrange the preceding equation to express required capacitance in

terms of specified voltage ripple:

1−D
C=
∆Vo 2
8 L( )f
Vo

If the ripple is not large, the assumption of a constant output voltage is reasonable, and the
preceding analysis is essentially valid.

Capacitor Resistance – The effect on Ripple Voltage

A real capacitor can be modeled as a capacitance with an equivalent series resistance (ESR) and
an equivalent series inductance (ESL).

Capacitor ESR is inversely proportional to the capacitance value.

The voltage variation across the capacitor resistance is,

∆ V o , ESR =∆ i C r C =∆ i L r C

The ripple voltage due to the ESR can be much larger than the ripple due to the pure capacitance.
In that case, the output capacitor is chosen based on the equivalent series resistance rather than
capacitance only.
∆ V o ,C ∆ V o , ESR =∆ iC r C

Design Considerations
 Most buck converters are designed for continuous-current operation.
 As the switching frequency increases, the minimum size of the inductor to produce
continuous current and the minimum size of the capacitor to limit output ripple both
decrease.
 Increased power loss in the switches means that heat is produced. This decreases the
converter’s efficiency and may require a large heat sink.
 The inductor value should be larger than Lmin to ensure continuous-current mode. The
main practice is the use 25 percent larger than the Lmin.
 The ESR of the capacitor should be included because it typically gives a more significant
output voltage ripple than the ideal device.
 Typical switching frequencies are above 20kHz to avoid audio noise, and they extend
well into the 100s of kilohertz and into the megahertz range.
 The inductor wire must be rated at the rms current, and the core should not saturate for
peak inductor current. The capacitor must be selected to limit the output ripple to the
design specifications, to withstand peak output voltage, and to carry the required rms
current.
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LDO AND BUCK PCB DESIGN

Voltage Regulator
I had several voltage regulators in my mind from LM7805 to AMS1117 and I chose AMS1117
as my final choice since it is a device widely used and a schematic or a PCB design wouldn’t
change from one regulator to another significantly.

When we examine the datasheet of the device, we see that there are various fixed-output devices
available under the name of AMS1117. We are particularly interested in the AMS1117-5.0 low
dropout regulator.

We can examine the file further and get the specifications thoroughly but that drawing a
schematic of an LDO is rather easy. It only needs decoupling capacitors at the input and the
output.

Schematics

Here is the schematics.

In&Out part is for voltage input and voltage output connectors. LEDs are for indicating power.
LDO is the part where magic happens. As you can see, all is there to add capacitors.
Capacitors are for getting rid of noises and ripples.

PCB of LDO
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Here is how the PCB looks.

You can’t see the 2D view and thus the traces but if you pay attention to the board, you can make
out that I used polygon pours for power traces and GND planes on both side. We talked that
LDOs are inefficient due to their capability of dissipating the power as heat. As stated in the
datasheet we can decrease total thermal resistance by increasing copper area in application board.

Buck Converter
The first choices I had as a buck converter were MC34063 and LM2596. Then I started to search
for a one that I do not know.

I have used JLCPCB parts website, direnc.net and celestial Altium library parts for my research.
I chose several components from the Altium library and then I check the availability of the part
both in JLCPCB parts and in direnc.net. I chose the cheaper, popular, and available one which is
TPS54302.

Schematics

Here is my design and now we will examine it.

First, I have read the datasheet and figured out the general concepts.

Then I started designing using the typical application circuit.

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Detailed Design Procedure

1. Input Capacitor Selection

The device requires an input decoupling capacitor, and a bulk capacitor is needed depending
on the application. A ceramic capacitor over 10 µF is recommended for the decoupling
capacitor. An additional 0.1-µF capacitor (C2) from the VIN pin to GND is optional to
provide additional high frequency filtering. The capacitor voltage rating must be greater than
the maximum input voltage.

2. Bootstrap Capacitor Selection

A 0.1-µF ceramic capacitor must be connected between the BOOT to SW pin for proper
operation. TI recommends using a ceramic capacitor. A ceramic capacitor with an X7R or
X5R grade dielectric is recommended because of the stable characteristics over temperature
and voltage.

3. Output Voltage Set Point

Select a value of R2 to be approximately 100 kΩ. Slightly increasing or decreasing the value
of R3 can result in closer output voltage matching when using standard value resistors. In this
design, R2 = 100 kΩ and R3 = 13.3 kΩ which results in a 5-V output voltage. The 49.9-Ω
resistor, R1, is provided as a convenient location to break the control loop for stability
testing.

R 2∗V ref R2
R 3= V OUT =V ref ∗( +1)
V OUT −V ref R3

TI recommends using divider resistors with 1% tolerance or better. To improve efficiency at

light loads consider using larger value resistors. If the values are too high the regulator is more
susceptible to noise and voltage errors from the FB input current are noticeable.
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4. Undervoltage Lockout Set Point

The undervoltage lockout (UVLO) set point can be adjusted using the external-voltage
divider network of R4 and R5. The R4 resistor is connected between the VIN and EN pins of
the TPS54302 device. The R5 resistor is connected between the EN and GND pins. The
UVLO has two thresholds, one for power up when the input voltage is rising and one for
power down or brownouts when the input voltage is falling. For the example design, the
minimum input voltage is 8 V, so the start voltage threshold is set to 6.74 V and the stop
voltage threshold is set to 5.83 V.

5. Output Filter Components

Two components must be selected for the output filter: the output inductor (LO) and CO.

 Inductor Selection
Use the equation to calculate the minimum value of the output inductor (LMIN).

V OUT ∗(V ¿ ( MAX )−V OUT )

L MIN=
V ¿ ( MAX )∗K IND∗I OUT ∗f SW
where KIND is a coefficient that represents the amount of inductor ripple current
relative to the maximum output current.

For this design example, use KIND = 0.35. The minimum inductor value is
calculated as 9.78 μH. For this design, a close standard value of 10 μH was
selected for LMIN. For the output filter inductor, the RMS current and saturation
current ratings must not be exceeded. Use the equation to calculate the RMS
inductor current (IL(RMS)).

√
I L (MAX )= I 2OUT ( MAX ) +
1
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∗¿ ¿ ¿

V OUT ∗(V ¿ ( MAX )−V OUT )

I L (PK )=I OUT ( MAX ) +
1.6∗V ¿ ( MAX )∗LO∗f SW

 Output Capacitor Selection

The output capacitor determines the modulator pole, the output voltage ripple, and
how the regulator responds to a large change in load current. The output
capacitance must be selected based on the more stringent of these three criteria.

Use the equation to calculate the minimum required output capacitance.

2∗∆ I OUT
C O>
f SW ∗∆ V OUT
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Using values in the datasheet results in a minimum capacitance of 30 μF. This value does not
consider the ESR of the output capacitor in the output voltage change. For ceramic capacitors,
the ESR is usually small enough to ignore in this calculation.

Use the equation to calculate the minimum output capacitance required to meet the output
voltage ripple specification. In the datasheet, the maximum output voltage ripple is 30 mV.
Under this requirement, the equation yields 10.7 μF.

1
∗I
8∗f SW ripple
C O>
V OUTripple

Use the equation to calculate the maximum ESR an output capacitor can have to meet the output-
voltage ripple specification. The equation indicates the ESR should be less than 29.2 mΩ.

V OUTripple
R ESR<
I ripple

Additional capacitance deratings for aging, temperature, and DC bias should be considered
which increases this minimum value. For this example, two 22-uF 25-V, X7R ceramic capacitors
are used. Capacitors generally have limits to the amount of ripple current they can handle
without failing or producing excess heat. An output capacitor that can support the inductor ripple
current must be specified. Some capacitor datasheets specify the RMS value of the maximum
ripple current. Use the equation to calculate the RMS ripple current that the output capacitor
must support. For this application, the equation yields 296 mA for each capacitor.

1 V OUT ∗(V ¿ ( MAX )−V OUT )

I COUT ( RMS )= ∗( )
√ 12 V ¿ ( MAX )∗LO∗f SW∗N C
 Feedforward Capacitor
Depending on the VOUT, if the output capacitor COUT is dominated by low ESR (ceramic
types) capacitors, it could result in low phase margin. To improve the phase, boost an external
feedforward capacitor C6 can be added in parallel with R2. The C6 capacitor is chosen such that
phase margin is boosted at the crossover frequency.

1
∗1
2πfo
C 6=
R2

The C6 capacitor is not needed when COUT has high ESR, and C6 calculated from the equation
should be reduced with medium ESR.

Below you can find the recommended component values.

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Power Supply Recommendation

The device is designed to operate from an input voltage supply range from 4.5 V to 28 V. This
input supply must be well regulated. If the input supply is located more than a few inches from
the device or converter, additional bulk capacitance may be required in addition to the ceramic
bypass capacitors. An electrolytic capacitor with a value of 47 µF is a typical choice.

PCB of Buck Converter

Designing a buck converter PCB is something you need to pay attention to very well. It has an
inductor, hence electromagnetic effects. So, if you would like to protect signals on your board,
you need to design it taking care of guidelines on how to do it.

The datasheet includes a layout practice and guidelines for this purpose.
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Layout Guidelines
Follow these layout guidelines:
• The VIN and GND traces should be as wide as possible to reduce trace impedance. The wide
areas are also of advantage from the viewpoint of heat dissipation.
• The input capacitor and output capacitor should be placed as close to the device as possible to
minimize trace impedance.
• Provide sufficient vias for the input capacitor and output capacitor.
• Keep the SW trace as physically short and wide as practical to minimize radiated emissions.
• Do not allow switching current to flow under the device.
• A separate VOUT path should be connected to the upper feedback resistor.
• Make a Kelvin connection to the GND pin for the feedback path.
• The voltage feedback loop should be placed away from the high voltage switching trace, and
preferably has ground shield.
• The trace of the VFB node should be as small as possible to avoid noise coupling.
• The GND trace between the output capacitor and the GND pin should be as wide as possible to
minimize its trace impedance.

Here is my design which is different from what it suggests in this guideline.

I used a double layer PCB. I tried to minimize SW node and used polygon pours for VIN and
GND planes. I dedicated my double layer as a GND plane. Only two traces routes at the bottom
layer. Those are ENABLE and BOOT pins. BOOT pin also goes under the IC. I do not know its
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effect but in the datasheet, it is also stated that we do not allow switching current to flow under
the device.

Here are some other guides that I preferably followed to design the PCB by myself instead of
using the one that is provided in the datasheet. These guides are taken from the YouTube channel
Phil’s Lab and the YouTube video Switching Power Supply PCB Layout Seminar.

General Layout and Routing Rules

 Keep loops tight.
 Start with critical (high-frequency, high-current) loops first.
 Finish with control circuitry (feedback, enables etc.)
 Keep all high-frequency, high-current components on same side as controller IC.
 Make traces as short and as wide as reasonably possible.
 Keep sensitive lines (feedback) away from areas of high energy (avoid coupling)
 Ground plane directly underneath the switcher.

Here are some of the reasons the recommended layouts from the datasheet cannot be
implemented as is:
 Major components are different in size and shape
 Circuit functions omitted or added
 Mechanical restrictions
 Proximity to other circuits and board density
 Additional thermal requirements
 Test requirements
 Fine pitch parts requiring thinner copper weight
 Larger vias required due to board thickness
 Larger vias required due to reliability concerns
 Different number of PCB layers

REFERENCES
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 Dr, D. W. H. P. (n.d.). Power Electronics. McGraw-Hill Education.