Tangent Lines And Rates of Change

Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis

❑ Tangent Lines
Definition. Suppose that 𝑥0 is in the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥). The tangent line to the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) is the line with equation
𝑦 − 𝑓 𝑥0 = 𝑚tan 𝑥 − 𝑥0
where
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚tan = lim = lim 𝑚sec
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
provided the limit exists. For simplicity, we will also call this the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥0 .

Slope of the secant line:

𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚sec =
𝑥 − 𝑥0

Lesson 7: Tangent Lines, Rates of Change &

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Derivative Function
 Tangent Lines And Rates of Change
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis

Example. Find an equation for the tangent line to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the point 𝑃 1, 1 .

Definition. If we let ℎ denote the difference ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , then the statement that 𝑥 → 𝑥0 is

equivalent to the statement ℎ → 0, so we can rewrite,
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 𝑥0 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 𝑥0 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚tan = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 (𝑥−𝑥0 )→0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 ℎ→0 ℎ

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Derivative Function
 Tangent Lines And Rates of Change
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
2
Example. Find an equation for the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 at the point (2, 1) on this
curve.

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Derivative Function
 Tangent Lines And Rates of Change
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis

❑Rates of Change
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then we define the average rate of change of 𝒚 with respect to 𝒙 over the
interval [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ] to be
𝑓 𝑥1 − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑥1 − 𝑥0
and we define the instantaneous rate of change of 𝒚 with respect to 𝒙 at 𝑥0 to be

𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑟ins = lim
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0

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Derivative Function
 Tangent Lines And Rates of Change
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis

Example. Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1.
(a) Find the average rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 over the interval [3, 5].
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 when 𝑥 = −4.

Solution (a). The average rate of change of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 over the interval 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 = [3,5] is
obtained by,
𝑓 𝑥1 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 5 − 𝑓(3) 26 − 10
𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = =8
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 5−3 2
Therefore, 𝑦 increases an average of 8 units per unit increase in 𝑥 over the interval [3,5].

Solution (a). The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 at 𝑥0 = −4 is obtained by,

𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(−4) 𝑥 2 + 1 − 17
𝑟ins = lim = lim = lim
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥→−4 𝑥 − (−4) 𝑥→−4 𝑥+4
𝑥 2 − 16 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 4)
= lim = lim = lim (𝑥 − 4) = −8
𝑥→−4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥→−4 (𝑥 + 4) 𝑥→−4
Therefore, a small increase in 𝑥 from 𝑥 = −4 will decrease approximately 8 unit in 𝑦.
Lesson 7: Tangent Lines, Rates of Change &
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Derivative Function
 Tangent Lines And Rates of Change
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
Exercise Set 2.1 𝑓 𝑥1 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒 = , 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠 = lim
𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
11–14 A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and values of 𝑥0 and 𝑥1 are given.
(a) Find the average rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 over the interval [𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ].
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 at the specified value of 𝑥0 .

27. During the first 40 s of a rocket flight, the rocket is propelled straight up so that in
𝑡 seconds it reaches a height of 𝑠 = 0.3𝑡 3 ft.
𝑡0 = 0, 𝑡1 = 40
(a) How high does the rocket travel in 40 s?
(b) What is the average velocity of the rocket during the first 40 s?
(c) What is the average velocity of the rocket during the first 1000 ft of its flight?
(d) What is the instantaneous velocity of the rocket at the end of 40 s?

𝑠 𝑡 − 𝑠(40)
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠 = lim
More Problems: 15-18, 28, 29 𝑡→40 𝑡 − 40

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Derivative Function
 The Derivative Function
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
1st Principle of Derivative
Definition. The derivative of a function 𝑓 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑓′(𝑥) defined by
𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
is called the derivative of 𝒇(𝒙) with respect to 𝒙. The domain of 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 consists of all 𝑥 in the
domain of 𝑓(𝑥) for which the limit exists.
Example. Find the derivative with respect to 𝑥 of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , and use it to find the equation of
the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2.
Solution. From the definition of derivative,

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Derivative Function
 The Derivative Function
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
Example.

Solution (a). The slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑥 at 𝑥0 is given by,

1
Thus, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 =
2 𝑥

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Derivative Function
 The Derivative Function
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
Example.

Solution (b). The slope of the tangent line at 𝑥 = 9 is 𝑓′(9).

1
Therefore the slope is 𝑓 ′ 9 = = 1/6.
2 9
Solution (c). Using the above solution,
1 1
lim+ 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim+ = +∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 2 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑥
1
The graphs of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = are shown in the figure below which has justified the result
2 𝑥
shown above. The graph of 𝑓′(𝑥) becomes more and more vertical as 𝑥 → 0+ and more and more
horizontal as 𝑥 → ∞.

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Derivative Function
 The Derivative Function
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
Definition. A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be differentiable at 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 if the following limit
𝑓 𝑥0 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓′(𝑥0 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
exists. If 𝑓(𝑥) is differential at each point of the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), then we say that it is
differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏), and similarly for open intervals of the form (𝑎, +∞), (−∞, b), and
(−∞, ∞). In the last case, we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable everywhere.

❖ The following figures illustrates two common ways in which a function that is continuous
at 𝑥0 but can fail to be differentiable at 𝑥0 . These can be described informally as
✓ corner points
✓ points of vertical tangency

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Derivative Function
 The Derivative Function
Ref. Textbook: Calculus (10th ed.) by Anton, Bivens and Davis
Exercise Set 2.2 H.W.
9-14 Find 𝑓′(𝑥) using the first principle of derivative, and then find the tangent line to the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

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Derivative Function