Error analysis and the EFL classroom teaching

Concept of Error Analysis

Error analysis is an activity to reveal errors found in writing and speaking.

Richards et.al (1985:96) state that error analysis is the study of errors made
by the second and foreign language learners. Error analysis may be carried
out in order to (a) find out how well someone knows a language, (b) find out
how a person learns a language, and (c) obtain information on common
difficulties in language learning, as an aid in teaching or in the preparation of
teaching materials. This definition stresses the functions of error analysis.
Another concept of error analysis is given By Brown (1980:166). He defined
error analysis as the process to observe, analyze, and classify the deviations of
the rules of the second language and then to reveal the systems operated by
learner. It seems this concept is the same as the one proposed by Crystal
(1987:112) i.e. error analysis is a technique for identifying, classifying and
systematically interpreting the unacceptable forms produced by someone
learning a foreign language, using any of the principles and procedures
provided by linguistics. The three definitions above clarify that error analysis
is an activity to identify, classify and interpreted or describe the errors made
by someone in speaking or in writing and it is carried out to obtain
information on common difficulties faced by someone in speaking or in
writing English sentences. Another thing, which should be noticed is the
procedure of error analysis.

Error analysis and the procedures

In order to analyze learners’ errors in a proper perspective, it is crucial to make a

distinction between “mistake” and “error”. According to Brown (2000), a “mistake”
refers to a performance error in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly.
While an “error” is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker,
reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner. This recognition process is
followed by the error description process. We compare learners’ sentences with the
correct sentences in target language, and find the errors. Then we come to the next
step—explanation stage, finding the sources of errors.
The beginning stages of learning a second language are characterized by a good
deal of interlingual transfer from the native language. In the early stages, the native
language is the only linguistic system upon which the learner can draw. These kinds
of errors can be found in all aspects of language learning.
Intralingual transfer (within the target language itself) is also a major factor. At
an intermediate level, learners’ previous experience and existing subsumes begin to
influence structures within the target language itself. Most of time, negative
intralingual transfer or overgeneralization has occurred, and these kinds of errors are
called developmental errors. We have found that overgeneralization makes it
significant for us to study the psychological process of language learners.
Cultural interference can cause either linguistic errors or inappropriateness in
the context. In addition, it sometimes hinders communication, so it should be taken
seriously. For example, an American lady said to a Chinese lady “what a beautiful
dress!” Instead of saying: “Thank you, I’m glad to hear that”, her reply “No, no.” In
accordance with Chinese way of receiving compliment will make the American lady
feel at loss. Thus language learning is also the culture learning. Otherwise, we cannot
get a good understanding of the language.

In some occasions, due to their insufficient linguistic knowledge, learners have

to express themselves with the help of communicative strategies. The most frequently
used communicative strategies are avoidance, language switch and prefabricated
patterns. Factually communicative strategies do help learners a lot in expressing their
ideas and the communicative teaching approach need these strategies as well. On the
other hand, teachers need to pay more attention to the errors occurred, otherwise they
will backfire.

Concept of Error

Various definitions of error have been presented by expert. Basically those

definitions contain the same meaning while the difference lies only on the
ways they formulate them. That is way the writer only puts forward two
definitions of error in this research. These two definitions are adequate to
reveal the errors showing up in the written texts.
The two definitions are (1) error is a systematic deviation, when a learner
has not learnt something and consistently gets it wrong’ (Norrish, 1987:7) and
(2) errors are systematic deviations from the norms of the language being
learned (Cunningworth, 1987:87). It seems that the phrase ‘systematic
deviation’ in these definitions is a key word which can be interpreted as the
deviation which happens repeatedly.
Further, it is necessary to differentiate between error and mistake. A
mistake is also a deviation of the norms of the language but is not
systematic. It means that the use of the norms of the language in
sentences is sometimes true and sometimes wrong. Norrish (1983:8) says
that a mistake is an inconsistent deviation that is sometimes the learner
‘gets it right’ but sometimes wrong. Richards et.al (1985:95) state that mistake is
made by a learner when writing or speaking which is cunsed of lack of
attention, fatigue, carelessness, or other aspects of performance. From these
two definitions, it can be concluded that a mistake is made by a learner
because he does not apply the rule (s) that he actually knows, in other
words, a mistake is a non systematic deviation from the norms of the
language.

Error treatment

Error treatment is a very complicated and thorny problem. As language teachers, we

need to be armed with some theoretical foundations and be aware of what we are doing
in the classroom. Here principles of optimal affective and cognitive feedback, of
reinforcement theory, and of communicative language teaching all combine to form
these theoretical foundations. With these theories in mind, we can judge in the
classroom whether we will treat or ignore the errors, when and how to correct them.
Sources or Causes of Errors

There are three terms which overlap one another. These terms are ‘sources of
error’ (Brown, 1980:173), ‘types of error’ (Richards, 1973:173), and ‘causes of error’
(Norrish, 1983:21-33) To have a clear understanding, the following explanation will
be helpful.

Sources of Errors

Brown (1980:173-181) classifies sources of error into, 1) interlingual

transfer, that is the negative influence of the mother tongue of learner, 2)
intralingual transfer, that is the negative transfer of items within the target
language. In order words, the incorrect generalization of rules within the target
language; 3) context of learning, which overlaps both types of transfer, for
example, the classroom with its teacher and its materials in the case of
school learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second
language learning. In a classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead
the learner to make wrong generalization about the language
;4)communication strategies. It is obvious that communication strategy is the
conscious employment of verbal mechanisms for communicating an idea when
linguistic forms are not available to the learner for some reasons. There are
five main communication strategies,namely :

1) Avoidance

Avoidance can be broken down into several subcategories, and thus

distinguished from other types of strategies. The most common type of avoidance
strategy is ‘syntactic or lexical avoidance’ within a semantic category. When a
learner, for example, cannot say “I lost my way” he might avoid the use of way’
and says “I lost my road” instead. “Phonological avoidance’ is also common, as in
the case of a learner of English who finds initial /I/ difficult to pronounce and
wants to say “he is a liar” may choose to say” He dose not speak the truth”.
 A more direct type of avoidance is “topic avoidance”, in which a whole topic
of conversation is entirely avoided. To avoid the topic, a learner may change
the subject, pretend not to understand, or simply not respond at all.

2) Prefabricated patterns

Another common communication strategy is to memorize certain stock

phrases or sentences without understanding the components of the phrases
or sentences. “Tourist survival” language is full of prefabricated patterns, most
of which can be found in pocket bilingual “phrase” books which list hundred of
stock sentences for various occasions. The examples of these prefabricated
patterns are “How much does it cost? ”, “Where is the toilet?”. “I don’t speak
English” and “I don’t understand you”.

3) Cognitive and personality style

One’s own personality style or style of thinking can be a source of error,

highlighting the idiosyncratic nature of many learner errors. A reflective and
conservative style might result in very careful but hesitant production of
speech with perhaps fewer errors but errors indicative of the conscious
application of rules. Such a person might also commit errors of over formality.
A person with high self-esteem may be willing to risk more errors, in the interest
of communication, because he does not feel as threatened by committing errors with
a person with low self-esteem. In answer to “How did you get here?” a person
might be heard to say, “I drove my bicycle” while another might say, “I pedaled
my bicycle” in an attempt to be precise. Language errors can thus
conceivably be traced to sources in certain personal or cognitive idiosyncrasies.
4) Appeal to authority

Another common strategy of communication is a direct appeal authority.

The learner may directly ask a native speaker (the authority) if he gets
stuck by saying, for example, “How do you say?” Or he might guess and then
ask for verification from the native speaker of the correctness of the
 attempt. He might also choose to look a word or structure up in a bilingual
dictionary.

5) Language Switch

Finally, when all other strategies fail to produce a meaningful utterance, a

learner may switch to the so-called language switch. That is, he may simply
use his native language whether the hearer knows that native language or
not. Usually, just a word or two are slipped in, in the hope that learner
will get the gist of what is being communicated.

Causes of Error

Norrish (1983:21-26) classifies causes of error into three types that is

carelessness, firs language interference, and translation. The three types of
causes of error will be discussed briefly below.

1) Carelessness

Carelessness is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers

will admit that it is not always the student’s fault if he loses interest, perhaps
the materials and/or style of presentation do not suit him.

2) First language

Norrish states that learning a language (a mother tongue or a foreign

language) is a matter of habit formation. When someone tries to learn new habits
the old ones will interfere the new ones. This causes of error is called first
language interference”.

3) Translation

Translation is one of the causes of error. This happens because a student

translates his first language sentence or idiomatic expression in to the target
language word by word. This is probably the most common cause of error.
Another expert who discusses the sources of error is Richards in Schummann
and Stenson ( 1978 : 32) in his article “Error Analysis and Second language
Strategies” . He classifies sources of errors into (1) interference that is an error
resulting from the transfer of grammatical and/or stylistic elements from the
source language to the target language; (2) overgeneralization, that is an error
caused by extension of target language rules to areas where they do not
apply; (3) performance error, that is unsystematic error that occurs as the result
of such thing as memory lapses, fatigue, confusion, or strong emotion; (4)
markers of transitional competence, that is an error that results from a
natural and perhaps inevitable development sequence in the second
language learning process (by analogy with first language
acquisition); (5) strategy of communication and assimilation that is an
error resulting from the attempt to communicate in the target language
without having completely acquired the grammatical form necessary to
do so; and (6) teacher-induced error, that is an error resulting from
pedagogical procedures contained in the text or employed by the teacher.
In another article “A Non-Contrastive Approach to Error Analysis”, Richards
(1971: 19-22) classifies causes of error into 1) overgeneralization, 2) incomplete
application of rules, 3 ) false concepts hypothesized, and 4) ignorance of rule
restriction. To make it clear, the four classifications above are explained briefly
below.

1) Overgeneralization

Overgeneralization generally involves the creation of one deviant structure in

place of two regular structures, for examples, “ He can sings ”, “We are hope
”, “it is occurs ”.

2) Incomplete Application of rules

An example of incomplete application of rules can be seen in the

question forms. Very often they are used, not to find out something, as they
should, but as a means of eliciting questions through a transform exercise.

The use of question may also be unrelated to the skills it is meant to establish.
Teacher’s questions Student’s responses
Ask her how long it takes How long it takes ?

How much does it cost ? It cost five dollar

What does he have to do ? He have to do write the address

3) False concepts hypothesized

False concepts hypothesized are something due to poor gradation of

teaching items. The form ‘ was ’ for example, may be interpreted as the
marker of the past tense, as in *“one day it was happened ”.

4) Ignorance of rule restriction

Closely related to the generalization of deviant structures is failure to

observe the restriction of existing structures, that is, the application of rules
to context where they do not apply. They man who I saw him violates
the limitation on subjects in structure with who. This is again a type of
generalization of transfer, since the learners is making use of previously
acquired rule in a new situation.