Surveying Module 1

Definition
Surveying is the process of determining the relative position of natural and manmade features on
or under the earth’s surface, the presentation of this information either graphically in the form of
plans or numerically in the form of tables, and the setting out of measurements on the earth’s
surface. It usually involves measurement, calculations, the production of plans, and the
determination of specific locations. The surveyor may be called on to determine heights and
distances; to set out buildings, bridges and roadways; to determine areas and volumes and to
draw plans at a predetermined scale.

Categories
There are two major categories of surveying:
1. Plane Surveying
Plane surveying deals with areas of limited extent and it is assumed that the earth’s surface is a
plane and therefore no corrections necessary for the earth’s curvature.
2. Geodetic Surveying
Geodetic surveying is concerned with determining the size and shape of the earth and it also
provides a high-accuracy framework for the control of lowerorder surveys. The highest standards
of accuracy are necessary. Geodetic surveys cover relatively large areas (eg a state or country)
for which the effects of earth curvature must be considered.

Branches
Apart from the two main categories, we may also classify surveys according to their different
branches and those disciplines directly associated with surveying:

1. Topographic Surveys are concerned with the measurement and mapping of the physical
features of the earth. These features are all natural and manmade features.
2. Engineering Surveys cover surveys carried out as part of the preparation for, and carrying out
of, engineering works, including roads, railways, pipelines, drainage etc.
3. Cadastral Surveys are concerned with the measurement, definition and mapping and recording
of property boundaries.
4. Hydrographic Surveys are those made for determining the shape of the bottom of lakes, rivers,
harbours and oceans. They also include the measurement of the flow of water in streams and the
estimation of water resources.
5. Aerial Surveys are made from an aeroplane, and for the purpose of mapping the terrain. The
control for such a map is obtained from ground surveys, but the details are obtained from aerial
photographs. This includes making measurements and interpretations from aerial photographs.
6. Astronomic Surveys are surveys made to determine the latitude, longitude and azimuth from
observations to the stars.
7. Mining Surveys are those made to determine survey control for the development of both surface
and underground mines within the mining industry, and the determination of volumes in mine
production.
8. Computing is a specialised area of surveying where complex computer programs are used to
solve problems within the surveying industry.
9. Consulting is another specialised area of surveying where specialist surveyors are hired for a
short period of time to advise on the requirements for a specific task or to perform the specific
task.

Measurements and Errors

A. Introduction
The purpose of this section is to discuss the different types of surveying measurements, identify
error sources, and describe procedures to minimize errors. Using common sense and developing
sound surveying practices cannot be over-emphasized. In addition to specific surveying
procedures, the surveyor will often be required to use their judgment to make important decisions
affecting the survey. Different types of surveying instruments used or the methods in which they
are employed will result in measurement differences. The defined error tolerances of the survey
will usually dictate the equipment or methodology required to achieve the best possible results.
Often, surveys involving critical elevations will require the use of a digital level or optical total
station over GPS equipment. The field conditions encountered will also influence the survey. For
example, excessive heat waves or strong winds may make it nearly impossible to accurately
perform some operations. Refer to Section VIII, Survey Standards, in this manual for specific error
tolerances for each feature code.
B. Surveying Measurements
Measuring distances and angles from a known reference are fundamental surveying operations.
Through the use of trigonometric calculations, the distance and angle measurements are used to
establish three dimensional (3-D) coordinates for each surveyed point. The coordinates are then
plotted to create planimetric maps and digital terrain models (DTM’s). The five common types of
survey measurements are horizontal distances and angles, vertical distances and angles, and
slope distances.

Fig. B-1. Surveying Measurements

1. Horizontal and Vertical Planes

Angles and distances are measured relative to either a horizontal or vertical plane. The horizontal
plane is a level surface radiating outward from the point of observation and is perpendicular to the
vertical axis. The vertical axis (or plumb line) is always parallel to the direction of gravity. The
vertical plane runs in a direction parallel to the vertical axis and perpendicular to the horizontal
plane. A vertical plane is established whenever the instrument rotates along the horizontal plane to
face a new direction.
a. Horizontal Distances and Angles
A linear measurement on the horizontal plane determines the horizontal distance between two
points. However, the true horizontal distance is actually curved like the Earth’s surface. Due to this
curvature, the direction of gravity is different at each point. Subsequently, vertical axes are not
parallel to each other.
Figure B-2 shows a representation of the curved surface and the parallel horizontal distance.
Horizontal angles are measured on the horizontal plane and establish the azimuth of each survey
measurement. An azimuth is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a defined reference
(typically geodetic north). Horizontal distance and angle measurements are then used to calculate
the position of a point on the horizontal plane.

Fig. B-2. Horizontal Distance

b. Vertical Distances and Angles
Vertical distances are measured along the vertical axis to determine the difference in height (or
elevation) between points. Vertical angles are measured in the vertical plane either above or
below the horizontal plane of the instrument. Zenith angles, used as a reference for measuring
vertical angles, are defined as 0° directly overhead and 90° at the horizontal plane.
c. Slope Distance
The slope distance is the shortest distance from the instrument to the target. This distance is the
hypotenuse of the horizontal and vertical distances. The horizontal and vertical distances can be
calculated if the slope distance and vertical angle is known.

2. Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision are two different, yet equally important surveying concepts. Accuracy is
the degree of conformity of a given measurement with a standard value. Precision is the extent to
which a given set of measurements agree with their mean. These concepts are illustrated in
Figures B-3 through B-5 with a target shooting example. In Figure B-3, all five shots are closely
grouped indicating good precision due to the degree of repeatability. However the accuracy is poor
because the shots are far from the center of the target. In Figure B-4, the five shots appear
randomly scattered about the target indicating neither accuracy nor precision. In Figure B-5, all
five shots
are closely spaced about the target’s center indicating both precision and accuracy.

Fig. B-3. Precision without Accuracy

Fig. B-4. Neither Precision nor Accuracy

Fig. B-5. Precision and Accuracy

The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise observations. Often
measurements with greater accuracy and precision requirements employ multiple observations to
minimize procedural errors.

C. Errors
A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the same
quantity. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of variance
regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These variances are known as errors and will
need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards. Even when carefully
following established surveying procedures, observations may still contain errors. Errors, by
definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value. The true value of a
measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of repeated measurements.
Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and knowledge of surveying methods to
minimize the amount of error in each measurement.

1. Blunders
A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by human error that often
leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of carelessness, miscommunication,
fatigue, or poor judgment. Examples of common blunders are:
 Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
 Setting up the instrument or target over the wrong control point.
 Incorrectly entering a control point number in the data collector.
 Transposing numbers or misplacing the decimal point.
All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submitting a survey for inclusion in the project
mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and constantly examine measurements to eliminate
these mistakes. Blunders can be detected and eliminated by reacting to “out-of-tolerance”
messages by the data collector when they occur. They can also be detected by carefully
examining a plot of the collected survey points while in the office.

2. Types of Errors
There are two types of errors, systematic and random. It is important for the surveyor to
understand the difference between the two errors in order to minimize them.
 a. Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are caused by the surveying equipment, observation methods, and
certain environmental factors. Under the same measurement conditions, these errors will
have the same magnitude and direction (positive or negative). Because systematic errors
are repetitive and tend to accumulate in a series of measurements, they are also referred to
as cumulative errors. Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor
must recognize the conditions that cause such errors. The following list includes several
examples of systematic errors:
 Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observations.
 Not applying curvature and refraction constants.
 Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.
 Using an incorrect prism offset.
 Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.

The effect of these errors can be minimized by:

 Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.
 Balancing foresight and backsight observations.
 Entering the appropriate environmental correction factors in the data collector.
 Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights, and prism offset in the data
collector.
 Periodically calibrating the surveying equipment.

If appropriate corrections are not made, these errors can accumulate and cause significant
discrepancies between measured values. By keeping equipment in proper working order
and following established surveying procedures, many of the systematic errors can be
eliminated.
b. Random Errors
Random (or accidental) errors are not directly related to the conditions or circumstances of
the observation. For a single measurement or a series of measurements, it is the error
remaining after all possible systematic errors and blunders have been eliminated.

As the name implies, random errors are unpredictable and are often caused by factors
beyond the control of the surveyor. Their occurrence, magnitude, and direction (positive
or negative) cannot be predicted. Errors of this type are compensating and tend to at least
partially cancel themselves mathematically. Because the magnitude is also a matter of
chance they will remain, to some degree, in every measurement.

Misclosures (or residuals) are the difference in a measurement or a series of measurements

from an established value. Random errors account for the misclosure
when systematic errors have been corrected and blunders have been removed.
Misclosures are computed when adjusting level loops, traverses, and GPS networks.

Random errors conform to the laws of probability and are therefore equally distributed
throughout the survey. Because of their random nature, correction factors cannot be
computed and applied as they are with some systematic errors. However, they can be
estimated using a procedure based on the laws of probability known as the least-squares
method of adjustment. This method computes the most probable adjusted values and the
precision of the survey. The least-squares method may also reveal the presence of large
blunders.

3. Error Sources
There are a variety of factors that can lead to measurement errors. Errors typically arise from three
sources; natural errors, instrument errors, and human errors.
a. Natural Errors
Natural errors are caused by environmental conditions or significant changes in environmental
conditions. Wind speed, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, gravity, earth curvature,
and atmospheric refraction are examples of natural error sources. Many of these environmental
conditions can be compensated for by applying a correction factor to each measurement.
Commonly used correction factors are the parts per million (ppm) and curvature and refraction
constants.

The ppm correction factor is applied to slope distances to minimize the effects of atmospheric
changes. The correction is determined using observed temperature and pressure readings. With
each instrument setup, new temperature and pressure readings should be taken and the ppm
constant revised, if necessary. The curvature and refraction constant is applied to the vertical
distance measurement. The constant corrects for the Earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
and should be applied to the survey by the data collector.

There are other natural phenomena that can lead to measurement errors. Intense, direct sunlight
may cause differential expansion of the components of the instrument, resulting in minor errors.
This effect can be minimized by operating on cloudy days, times of low sun angles, or using a
parasol to shade the instrument. Heat waves can cause distortion in lines of sight near reflective
surfaces. The effects of heat waves can be minimized by surveying in cooler, cloudy periods,
taking shorter measurements, or avoiding measurements taken over asphalt or concrete in
excessively hot weather.

b. Instrument Errors
Instrument errors are caused by imperfectly constructed, adjusted, or calibrated surveying
equipment. Most of these errors can be reduced by properly leveling the instrument, balancing
backsight/foresight shots, reducing measurement distances, and observing direct and reverse
positions (double centering).

Prolonged storage, exposure to rapid changes in temperature, and jarring during transportation
may lead to instrument maladjustments. Collimation and other sighting errors can be determined
and compensated for by specific instrument adjustments.
Before making instrument adjustments or beginning surveying operations, allow the instrument to
adapt to the ambient temperature before proceeding.

Instrument errors can be further minimized by periodically calibrating surveying instruments,

prisms, rods, and tribrachs. Yearly maintenance agreements are purchased to ensure that
WYDOT surveying instruments are regularly cleaned, calibrated, and adjusted by an authorized
technician. Occasionally during these services visits, the data collector’s operating system
(firmware) will be replaced with a more current version.

It is equally important that equipment suspected of being out of tolerance is sent to the appropriate
service center. The Photogrammetry & Surveys Section should be notified prior to sending
equipment for unscheduled adjustment, calibration and/or repairs.

c. Human Errors
Human errors are caused by physical limitations and inconsistent setup and observation habits of
the surveyor. For example, minor errors result from misaligning the telescope crosshairs on the
target or not holding the target rod perfectly plumb. These errors will always be present to some
degree in every observation. However, by following established setup and collection procedures,
many potential errors can be minimized.
Because any survey is only as accurate as the instrument/target setup; a secure, level tripod is
paramount. A tripod should always be used to stabilize the backsight target when placing it over a
control point. When positioning the tripod, firmly press the tripod feet into the ground. Place the
tripod legs in a position that will reduce the amount of walking near the instrument. Minimizing
movement around the tripod will reduce the chances of bumping it. In windy conditions, it may be
necessary to place sandbags on the feet of the tripod to ensure stability. When setting up on steep
slopes, position two tripod legs on the downhill side. Periodically check the optical plummet to
verify that the instrument is still centered over the point. Periodically check the level bubble to
ensure that the instrument is still on a horizontal plane. The level bubble should hold one position
when the instrument is smoothly rotated through a complete revolution.

When taking an observation with an optical instrument, the center of the target should coincide
with the center of the reticle (or crosshair). To obtain accurate results, consistently sight the
telescope to the same part of the target. Turn the ocular (or eye piece) until the reticle is clearly
focused. Then adjust the focusing knob until the target is clearly defined within the field of view.
When the observer’s eye moves behind the ocular, the target and reticle should not be displaced
with respect to one another.